Fig. 5: Organoid models.

a Cardiac organoid with co-development of cardiac mesoderm and foregut endoderm, mimicking heart tube formation [scale bars = 200 µm (top-left), 100 µm (top-right), 200 µm (bottom)]. Reproduced with permission⁴⁶. Copyright 2021, Springer Nature. b Self-organizing cavity-forming cardioid modeling early heart field and lumenogenesis [scale bars = 1 µm (top), 200 µm (bottom-left), 50 µm (bottom-right)]. Reproduced with permission⁴⁷. Copyright 2021, Elsevier. c Epicardioid capturing epicardium formation and EMT processes [scale bars = 200 µm (top-left), 100 µm (top-middle), 50 µm (top-right), 50 µm (bottom)]. Reproduced with permission⁵⁰. Copyright 2023, Springer Nature. d Multi-chamber cardiac organoid with spatially patterned atrial and ventricular domains [scale bars = 200 µm]. Reproduced with permission⁵¹. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. e Blood-generating organoid co-developing cardiac and hematopoietic lineages [scale bars = 500 µm]. Reproduced with permission⁵². Copyright 2024, Springer Nature. f Vascularized cardiac organoid with integrated hepatic and endothelial precursors [scale bars = 1 mm (top-left), 0.5 mm (top-right), 0.5 mm (bottom-left), 100 µm (bottom-middle), 20 µm (bottom-right)]. Reproduced with permission⁵⁵. Copyright 2025, The American Association for the Advancement of Science. IC inner core, ML middle layer, OL outer layer, WT1 Wilms tumor 1, EPDCs epicardium-derived cells, EMT epithelial-mesenchymal transition, ID intercalated disk, RA right atrium, LV left ventricle, RV right ventricle, BG-HFO blood-generating heart-forming organoid, MES mesenchyme, CMs cardiomyocytes, ECs endothelial cells, SMCs smooth muscle cells, cVO cardiac vascularized organoid