Fig. 4: Confinement effect on h-ATO/RuO2 catalyst.

a Schematic illustration of the test process of local Ru concentration near the catalyst surface and bulk Ru dissolved in the anolyte. b Local Ru concentration near the catalyst surface normalized by ECSA for h-ATO/RuO2 and s-ATO/RuO2 catalysts. c Bulk Ru dissolved in the anolyte after 20 h tests for h-ATO/RuO2 and s-ATO/RuO2 catalysts. The error bars represent the standard deviation of three independent measurements.