Fig. 3: Locomotion performance tests across various conditions and speed comparisons.

A Relationship between speed and frequency/width of input pulse for crawling and bouncing gaits. Solid lines represent crawling gait data, while dashed lines represent bouncing gait data tested on an epoxy resin surface. The error bars indicate the standard deviation of five trials. B Comparative analysis of speed versus body weight across different categories: arthropods (green shading), insect robots (under 10 g). A red diamond represents the results of this study. C Speed measurements for crawling and bouncing gaits on different surfaces. The error bars indicate the standard deviation of three trials. D Optical images demonstrating the robot overcoming an obstacle in 1.2 s using the bouncing gait. E Illustration of the robot’s continued rapid forward movement even after experiencing puncture damage. (See Fig. S18 for microscopic images).