Fig. 3: Modifier effects on bulk crystallization and cluster formation.

a Percent inhibition of calcium oxalate crystallization from ISE measurements in the presence of modifiers conducted over a 1-h period (see raw data in Supplementary Fig. 1). Dashed lines are interpolations to guide the eye; data points are an average of at least three separate measurements; and error bars span two standard deviations (some are smaller than the symbol size). b Statistical distribution of cluster cross-sectional areas measured from over 250 LPTEM images. Inset: effective diameters calculated from cross-sectional areas assuming a spherical cluster morphology with error bars showing 95% confidence intervals for population means (see Supplementary Fig. 8 for detailed statistical analysis). c – e LPTEM images of clusters observed in undersaturated calcium oxalate solutions (0.07 mM) in the (c) absence of modifier (inset: image of a blank liquid cell containing only DI water: scale bar = 500 nm) and in the presence of 7 μg mL⁻¹ (d) PA and (e) HMP. Clusters formed in the presence of LTPP are similar to the control (see Supplementary Fig. 9).