Fig. 3: No widespread detection of pairwise epistasic interactions in the HMDP.

The percentage of all HMDP pairwise interacting loci with consistent direction of effects in the two sexes was plotted according to the male-derived p values. Interaction p values > 0.95 were excluded due to many low-frequency alleles. Directionality was determined using the sign of the Beta value for each interaction. The phenotypes measured included A metabolic traits, B blood traits, and C simulated phenotypes (n = 10 simulations per group) using an increasing number of “causal” SNPs. Error bars were calculated using ggplot2 as mean values ±standard deviation.