Fig. 4: Detection of widespread main effects in the UK biobank.

The percentage of all UK Biobank main effect loci with consistent direction of effects in the two sexes was plotted according to the male-derived p values. Main effect p values > 0.95 were excluded due to many low-frequency alleles. Directionality was determined using the sign of the effect size of each main effect loci. Phenotypes measured included BMI, height, obesity, and type 2 diabetes and are A sorted by male p values, or B sorted by absolute male beta values. C Simulated phenotypes (n = 10 simulations per group) using an increasing number of “causal” SNPs.