Fig. 5: The El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) reconstruction influenced by shifted teleconnections.
From: Volcanic eruptions disrupt ENSO teleconnections with land summer temperature
a Correlations between the observed and reconstructed December-to-February (DJF) Niño 3.4 using global, Northern Hemispheric (NH), Southern Hemispheric (SH), and tropical land surface air temperature (\({T}_{a}\)) in boreal summer as predictors during the years not impacted (NVol) and impacted (NVol) by volcanic eruptions. Asterisks denote the 0.05 significance level. Time series of DJF Niño 3.4 observations and reconstructions following the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo (b), 1912 eruption of Novarupta (c), and 1902 eruption of Santa Maria (d). Vertical blue arrows denote years with marked difference between observations and reconstructions. Start dates of eruptions are shown on top left.
