Fig. 5: Scalable integration and outdoor applications of the SSEG.

A Photograph with a scale bar of 10 cm and schematic illustration of the SSEG array. B Output voltage and current characteristics of the SSEG devices connected in various series (bottom) and parallel (top) configurations, with an inset showing the schematic of SSEG series-parallel structure. C Charging rate of a 1 F commercial capacitor using the SSEG array, with an inset photograph demonstrating the SSEG array’s capacity to power a mobile phone. D Optical photograph of SSEG system condensation process (top) and comparison of typical ionic concentrations in the initial seawater and the purified condensate collected after evaporation (bottom). E Schematic depicting the simulated all-weather solar illumination process on the SSEG system. F Stability assessment of four SSEG arrays (120 units total) during outdoor diurnal cycle, with a single seawater replenishment per cycle. G Voltage output and salinity of the residual concentrated seawater from a single cycle, with an inset photograph of a reverse electrodialysis device. All error bar represents the standard deviation of three-time measurements.