Fig. 5: Engineered and enhanced sexual dimorphism of yellow-GSS.

Measurements of (A) Pupal pigmentation intensity (mean gray value) and (B) pupal width (mm). Data for both metrics are shown as boxplots indicating the median (line), mean (cross), interquartile range (box), and whiskers extending to ± 1.5×IQR. Statistical significance was assessed using ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD test, with significant differences indicated by letter groups (p < 0.05). C Combined analysis of width and pigmentation levels. Each point represents an individual pupa, with histograms showing the distribution of phenotypes. D Development time, measured as the average number of days until pupation. Data are presented as the mean value ± SEM. Statistical significance was determined by a Welch’s two-tailed t test (* denotes t(2369) = –3.07, p = 0.0021; *** denotes t(2048) = 11.28, p < 2.2 × 10⁻¹⁶). E Pupation dynamics over time. Kernel density plots show daily pupation probability. Semi-transparent areas represent each of the four replicates in the experiment and solid lines indicate the cumulative probability. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.