Abstract
Smart fibers, particularly liquid crystal elastomer (LCE) fibers, are pivotal in soft robotics and adaptive textiles. However, existing fabrication methods are limited to simple monolithic structures, hindering the realization of complex actuation behaviors. To overcome this limitation, we develop a continuous extrusion platform for producing Janus LCE fibers that emulate asymmetric biological structures, such as plant tendrils, thereby enabling sophisticated actuation. This approach seamlessly integrates an LCE network with a dynamic covalent polymer network, allowing programmable on-demand liquid crystal orientation for actuation via dynamic bond exchange. The resulting Janus fibers exhibit enhanced mechanical properties and multifunctional capabilities, including adaptive object manipulation, stimuli-responsive directional motion, and scalable integration into smart fabrics for thermal management. By unifying material intelligence with structural programmability, this work advances the development of bioinspired soft robotic systems with enhanced environmental adaptability.
Data availability
The authors declare that the data supporting the findings of this study are provided within the article and its Supplementary Information file. Additional data were available upon request from the corresponding author. Source data are provided with this paper.
References
Kim, D. S., Lee, Y.-J., Kim, Y. B., Wang, Y. & Yang, S. Autonomous, untethered gait-like synchronization of lobed loops made from liquid crystal elastomer fibers via spontaneous snap-through. Sci. Adv. 9, eadh5107 (2023).
Wang, Y., Sun, J., Liao, W. & Yang, Z. Liquid crystal elastomer twist fibers toward rotating microengines. Adv. Mater. 34, 2107840 (2022).
Kanik, M. et al. Strain-programmable fiber-based artificial muscle. Science 365, 145–150 (2019).
Hu, Z., Zhang, Y., Jiang, H. & Lv, J. Bioinspired helical-artificial fibrous muscle structured tubular soft actuators. Sci. Adv. 9, eadh3350 (2023).
Hu, Z., Li, Y. & Lv, J. Phototunable self-oscillating system driven by a self-winding fiber actuator. Nat. Commun. 12, 3211 (2021).
Zhang, M. et al. Mandrel-free fabrication of giant spring-index and stroke muscles for diverse applications. Science 387, 1101–1108 (2025).
Guo, X. et al. Encoded sewing soft textile robots. Sci. Adv. 10, eadk3855 (2024).
Geng, Y., Kizhakidathazhath, R. & Lagerwall, J. P. F. Robust cholesteric liquid crystal elastomer fibres for mechanochromic textiles. Nat. Mater. 21, 1441–1447 (2022).
Xiong, J., Chen, J. & Lee, P. S. Functional fibers and fabrics for soft robotics, wearables, and human-robot interface. Adv. Mater. 33, 2002640 (2021).
Wu, M. et al. Biomimetic, knittable aerogel fiber for thermal insulation textile. Science 382, 1379–1383 (2023).
Weng, W. et al. A route toward smart system integration: from fiber design to device construction. Adv. Mater. 32, 1902301 (2020).
Jung, Y., Kwon, K., Lee, J. & Ko, S. H. Untethered soft actuators for soft standalone robotics. Nat. Commun. 15, 3510 (2024).
Wang, X.-Q. et al. Macromolecule conformational shaping for extreme mechanical programming of polymorphic hydrogel fibers. Nat. Commun. 13, 3369 (2022).
Wang, Q. et al. Programmable spatial deformation by controllable off-center freestanding 4D printing of continuous fiber reinforced liquid crystal elastomer composites. Nat. Commun. 14, 3869 (2023).
Puza, F. & Lienkamp, K. 3D Printing of polymer hydrogels—from basic techniques to programmable actuation. Adv. Funct. Mater. 32, 2205345 (2022).
Wei, S. et al. Bioinspired synergistic fluorescence-color-switchable polymeric hydrogel actuators. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 58, 16243–16251 (2019).
Lendlein, A. Fabrication of reprogrammable shape-memory polymer actuators for robotics. Sci. Robot. 3, eaat9090 (2018).
Apsite, I., Salehi, S. & Ionov, L. Materials for smart soft actuator systems. Chem. Rev. 122, 1349–1415 (2022).
Li, T. et al. Fast-moving soft electronic fish. Sci. Adv. 3, e1602045 (2017).
Saed, M. O., Gablier, A. & Terentjev, E. M. Exchangeable liquid crystalline elastomers and their applications. Chem. Rev. 122, 4927–4945 (2022).
Roach, D. J. et al. Long liquid crystal elastomer fibers with large reversible actuation strains for smart textiles and artificial muscles. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11, 19514–19521 (2019).
Hou, W., Wang, J. & Lv, J. Bioinspired liquid crystalline spinning enables scalable fabrication of high-performing fibrous artificial muscles. Adv. Mater. 35, 2211800 (2023).
Javadzadeh, M., Del Barrio, J. & Sánchez-Somolinos, C. Melt electrowriting of liquid crystal elastomer scaffolds with programmed mechanical response. Adv. Mater. 35, 2209244 (2023).
Kotikian, A. et al. Innervated, self-sensing liquid crystal elastomer actuators with closed loop control. Adv. Mater. 33, 2101814 (2021).
Xue, J., Wu, T., Dai, Y. & Xia, Y. Electrospinning and electrospun nanofibers: methods, materials, and applications. Chem. Rev. 119, 5298–5415 (2019).
He, Q. et al. Electrospun liquid crystal elastomer microfiber actuator. Sci. Robot. 6, eabi9704 (2021).
Gerbode, S. J., Puzey, J. R., McCormick, A. G. & Mahadevan, L. How the cucumber tendril coils and overwinds. Science 337, 1087–1091 (2012).
Hu, Z., Li, Y., Zhao, T. & Lv, J. Self-winding liquid crystal elastomer fiber actuators with high degree of freedom and tunable actuation. Appl. Mater. Today 27, 101449 (2022).
Zhang, C., Fei, G., Lu, X., Xia, H. & Zhao, Y. Liquid crystal elastomer artificial tendrils with asymmetric core-sheath structure showing evolutionary biomimetic locomotion. Adv. Mater. 36, 2307210 (2024).
Yu, Y. et al. Versatile synthesis of metal-compound based mesoporous Janus nanoparticles. Nat. Commun. 14, 4249 (2023).
Guo, X.-Y. et al. Janus channel of membranes enables concurrent oil and water recovery from emulsions. Science 386, 654–659 (2024).
Ding, Z. et al. Janus hydrogel microrobots with bioactive ions for the regeneration of tendon-bone interface. Nat. Commun. 16, 2189 (2025).
Xu, C. et al. Biospinning of hierarchical fibers for a self-sensing actuator. Chem. Eng. J. 485, 150014 (2024).
Zheng, N., Xu, Y., Zhao, Q. & Xie, T. Dynamic covalent polymer networks: a molecular platform for designing functions beyond chemical recycling and self-healing. Chem. Rev. 121, 1716–1745 (2021).
Fang, Z. et al. 3D printable elastomers with exceptional strength and toughness. Nature 631, 783–788 (2024).
Feng, H. et al. Ultratough yet dynamic crystalline poly(thiourethane) network directly from low viscosity precursors. CCS Chem 6, 682–692 (2024).
Lu, H.-F., Wang, M., Chen, X.-M., Lin, B.-P. & Yang, H. Interpenetrating liquid-crystal polyurethane/polyacrylate elastomer with ultrastrong mechanical property. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 141, 14364–14369 (2019).
Zhu, P. et al. Bioinspired soft microactuators. Adv. Mater. 33, 2008558 (2021).
Yao, M., Wu, B., Feng, X., Sun, S. & Wu, P. A highly robust ionotronic fiber with unprecedented mechanomodulation of ionic conduction. Adv. Mater. 33, 2103755 (2021).
Martinez, A. P., Ng, A., Nah, S. H. & Yang, S. Active-textile yarns and embroidery enabled by wet-spun liquid crystalline elastomer filaments. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34, 2400742 (2024).
Sun, J., Liao, W. & Yang, Z. Additive manufacturing of liquid crystal elastomer actuators based on knitting technology. Adv. Mater. 35, 2302706 (2023).
Zhao, L. et al. Bio-inspired soft-rigid hybrid smart artificial muscle based on liquid crystal elastomer and helical metal wire. Small 19, 2206342 (2023).
Li, M. et al. Coaxial-spun hollow liquid crystal elastomer fiber as a versatile platform for functional composites. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34, 2406847 (2024).
Liu, Q. et al. Dynamic liquid crystal elastomers for body heat-and sunlight-driven self-sustaining motion via material-structure synergy. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 64, e202500527 (2025).
Escobar, M. C. & White, T. J. Fast and slow-twitch actuation via twisted liquid crystal elastomer fibers. Adv. Mater. 36, 2401140 (2024).
Guo, H., Ruoko, T., Zeng, H. & Priimagi, A. Hydrogen-bonded liquid crystal elastomers combining shape memory programming and reversible actuation. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34, 2312068 (2024).
Chen, W. et al. Knotted artificial muscles for bio-mimetic actuation under deepwater. Adv. Mater. 36, 2400763 (2024).
Schlafmann, K. R., Alahmed, M. S., Lewis, K. L. & White, T. J. Large range thermochromism in liquid crystalline elastomers prepared with intra-mesogenic supramolecular bonds. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33, 2305818 (2023).
Deng, Z., Li, K., Priimagi, A. & Zeng, H. Light-steerable locomotion using zero-elastic-energy modes. Nat. Mater. 23, 1728–1735 (2024).
Ma, J., Wang, Y., Sun, J. & Yang, Z. Liquid crystal elastomer hollow fibers as artificial muscles with large and rapid actuation enabled by thermal-pneumatic enhanced effect. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34, 2402403 (2024).
Lugger, S. J. D. et al. Melt-extruded thermoplastic liquid crystal elastomer rotating fiber actuators. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33, 2306853 (2023).
Wu, D. et al. Novel biomimetic “Spider Web” robust, super-contractile liquid crystal elastomer active yarn soft actuator. Adv. Sci. 11, 2400557 (2024).
Zhou, X. et al. Geometrically insensitive deform-and-go liquid crystal elastomer actuators through controlled radical diffusion. Nat. Commun. 16, 7536 (2025).
Zhou, X. et al. Metal-ligand bonds based reprogrammable and re-processable supramolecular liquid crystal elastomer network. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 63, e202409182 (2024).
Wang, Z. et al. Photoinduced, swift, and reversible spatiotemporal programming of double dynamically bonded liquid crystal elastomer actuators. Adv. Mater. 37, 2501815 (2025).
Wang, Y. et al. Thermally gated covalent adaptivity in liquid crystal elastomers for stable actuation. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 64, e202506571 (2025).
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the following programs for the financial support: National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 22205052 to B.W. and 22275162 to N.Z.), Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (No. LMS25B040002 to B.W. and No. LZ25E030007 to N.Z.), Hangzhou Leading Innovation and Entrepreneurship Team Project (No. TD2022001 to J.L.), the Interdisciplinary Research Project of Hangzhou Normal University (No. 2024JCXK01 to J.L.), and the Research Start-up Fund from Hangzhou Normal University (No. 2021QDL083 to B.W.).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
J.X. and B.W. conceived the concept. N.Z., J.L., and B.W. directed the project. J.X. and B.W. designed the experiments. J.X., H.W., Z.F., X.P., J.S., J.L., X.W., and C.L. conducted the experiments. J.X., N.Z., J.L., and B.W. wrote the paper. J.X., H.W., Z.F., X.P., J.S., J.L., X.W., C.L., M.-B.W., N.Z., J.L., and B.W. participated in the discussion of the results.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Peer review
Peer review information
Nature Communications thanks Lin Xu and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work. A peer review file is available.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Source data
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Xu, J., Wan, H., Fang, Z. et al. Continuous fabrication of Janus liquid crystal elastomer fibers with programmable actuation. Nat Commun (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-68992-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-68992-2
