Fig. 1: Schematic of the design of MSC-laden CPAC hydrogel for the treatment of critical-sized rat cranial bone defects.

a Schematic showing the natural ECM network changed from homogeneous to heterogeneous during skull development. b Schematic showing the network heterogenization of MSCs-laden NC hydrogel (left), NCLS hydrogel (middle), and CPAC hydrogel (right) after ALP exposure. c Mechanism of heterogeneous network formation induced by ALP-mediated phase transition in CPAC hydrogels. d Proposed signaling pathways involved MSC-driven active remodeling of the extracellular matrix and enhanced osteogenesis.