Fig. 4: Modulation of the gut microbiome by MMT@Bac@TL.

a, b Growth rate of EcN after 2 (a) or 4 (b) hours of incubation with culture medium, Bac, MMT@Bac, and MMT@Bac@TL, respectively (n = 5 or 6 independent samples). c, d Growth rate of S. typhimurium after 4 (c) or 6 (d) hours of incubation with culture medium, Bac, MMT@Bac, and MMT@Bac@TL, respectively (n = 4, 5 or 6 independent samples). Antibiotic-treated mice were administered with PBS, Bac, MMT@Bac, and MMT@Bac@TL at a dose per day for 7 days, respectively. Then, the cecum was collected for 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Mice without any treatment were set as a healthy control. e Results of the PCA of the gut microbiota at class level (n = 5 independent samples). p-value was analyzed by non-parametric statistical test ANOSIM. f Cladogram of LEfSe from phylum to species levels (n = 5 independent samples). LEfSe analyses were performed with the Kruskal-Wallis rank sum test. The threshold of the LDA score is 3.5. g Abundances of the gut microbiota at the class level. h, i Relative abundances of Bacill in class level (h) and Synergistota in phylum level (i) (n = 4 or 5 independent samples). Data are represented as means ± SD. p-values were determined using one-way ANOVA. p-values  < 0.05 are shown. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.