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Scalable modular design of solid oxide fuel cell systems for enhanced large-scale power generation
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  • Published: 06 February 2026

Scalable modular design of solid oxide fuel cell systems for enhanced large-scale power generation

  • Xinyi Wei  ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1132-56121,2,
  • Arthur Waeber1,
  • Shivom Sharma1,
  • Hangyu Yu  ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0856-03202,
  • Jan Van herle2 &
  • …
  • François Maréchal  ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1752-56901 

Nature Communications , Article number:  (2026) Cite this article

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  • Electrical and electronic engineering
  • Energy grids and networks
  • Energy modelling

Abstract

The increasing demand for renewable energy integration and scalable power generation highlights the need for efficient and cost-effective solid oxide fuel cell systems. In this study, we present a modular hybrid design framework that enables flexible solid oxide fuel cell scale-up by interconnecting standardized component modules. We introduce a series-parallel configuration that strategically leverages anode and cathode off-gas recirculation to enhance both electrical and thermal efficiency. Through a detailed case study, we demonstrate that the hybrid design achieves 66.3% electrical efficiency while reducing external water use by 59.9% and fresh air demand by 22%, outperforming conventional system designs. We further conducted a techno-economic analysis across four scale-up strategies and found that the hybrid design delivers the lowest levelized cost of electricity at 0.155 $/kWh. Through this work, we have highlighted the critical trade-offs between centralization and decentralization, high- and low-technology readiness level technologies, and economies of scale versus manufacturing capacity. We believe our findings underscore the potential of modular and standardized systems to provide scalable, efficient, and economically viable solutions for future low-carbon energy infrastructures.

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Data availability

The data supporting the findings of this study are available in the paper and its Supplementary Information. Source data are provided with this paper.

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Acknowledgements

The author (X.W.) thankfully acknowledges the financial support from the project AMON. The project is supported by the Clean Hydrogen Partnership and its members under grant agreement no. 101101521. Co-funded by the European Union. Views and opinions expressed are, however, those of the author(s) only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the Clean Hydrogen Partnership. Neither the European Union nor the granting authority can be held responsible for them. The author (X.W.) also thankfully acknowledges the financial support from the project H2Marine. The project is supported by the Clean Hydrogen Partnership and its members under grant agreement no. 101137965. Co-funded by the European Union. Views and opinions expressed are, however, those of the author(s) only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the Clean Hydrogen Partnership. Neither the European Union nor the granting authority can be held responsible for them. This work was supported by the Swiss State Secretariat for Education, Research, and Innovation (SERI) under contract number 24.00109 - 101137965.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Industrial Process and Energy Systems Engineering-École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Sion, Valais, Switzerland

    Xinyi Wei, Arthur Waeber, Shivom Sharma & François Maréchal

  2. Group of Energy Materials-École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Sion, Valais, Switzerland

    Xinyi Wei, Hangyu Yu & Jan Van herle

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  1. Xinyi Wei
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Contributions

Conceptualization: X.W., S.S., F.M. System modeling and optimization: X.W., S.S. Economic analysis: A.W., X.W., S.S. Writing—original draft: X.W., S.S., A.W. Study revision: X.W., S.S., H.Y., A.W. Supervision, review: F.M., J.V.h.

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Wei, X., Waeber, A., Sharma, S. et al. Scalable modular design of solid oxide fuel cell systems for enhanced large-scale power generation. Nat Commun (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-69110-y

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  • Received: 26 May 2025

  • Accepted: 26 January 2026

  • Published: 06 February 2026

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-69110-y

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