Abstract
Realizing multi-mode programmable dynamic tunable persistent luminescence within a single solid is promising for multi-dimensional information storage and encryption applications. However, coupling luminescent centers with differentiated defect states remains a challenge. Here we report transparent glass ceramics that exhibit photo/thermally dynamic tunable afterglow. A lithium-ion doping-assisted phase separation principle is developed to control the precipitation of defective non-stoichiometric nanocrystals (Zn1.7SiO4: Li) in glass matrix, constructing a biphasic microenvironment with differentiated defect states. The persistent luminescence color can be manipulated by simultaneously engineering the distributions of Mn2+ activators in the amorphous glass matrix and nanocrystals, and the mechanism is discussed. The developed transparent composites exhibit excellent hardness of up to 10 gigapascal and high thermal stability, which is applicable for harsh conditions. This work pioneers a strategy for modulating dynamic afterglow in a single solid and inspires more potential applications in muti-dimensional information storage and encryption.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The source data generated in this study are provided in the Supplementary Information/Source Data file. Source data are provided with this paper.
References
Li, Y., Gecevicius, M. & Qiu, J. Long persistent phosphors—from fundamentals to applications. Chem. Soc. Rev. 45, 2090–2136 (2016).
Jinnai, K., Kabe, R., Lin, Z. & Adachi, C. Organic long-persistent luminescence stimulated by visible light in p-type systems based on organic photoredox catalyst dopants. Nat. Mater. 21, 338–344 (2022).
Lin, C. et al. Charge trapping for controllable persistent luminescence in organics. Nat. Photonics 18, 350–356 (2024).
Huang, J. et al. Molecular radio afterglow probes for cancer radiodynamic theranostics. Nat. Mater. 22, 1421–1429 (2023).
Maldiney, T. et al. The in vivo activation of persistent nanophosphors for optical imaging of vascularization, tumours and grafted cells. Nat. Mater. 13, 418–426 (2014).
Pei, P. et al. X-ray-activated persistent luminescence nanomaterials for NIR-II imaging. Nat. Nanotechnol. 16, 1011–1018 (2021).
Gan, N. et al. Stretchable phosphorescent polymers by multiphase engineering. Nat. Commun. 15, 4113 (2024).
Wei, J. et al. Full-color persistent room temperature phosphorescent elastomers with robust optical properties. Nat. Commun. 14, 4839 (2023).
Xie, W. et al. Anti-kasha triplet energy transfer and excitation wavelength-dependent persistent luminescence from host-guest doping systems. Nat. Commun. 14, 8098 (2023).
Li, D., Yang, J., Fang, M., Tang, B. Z. & Li, Z. Stimulus-responsive room temperature phosphorescence materials with full-color tunability from pure organic amorphous polymers. Sci. Adv. 8, eabl8392 (2022).
Chen, T. & Yan, D. Full-color, time-valve controllable and Janus-type long-persistent luminescence from all-inorganic halide perovskites. Nat. Commun. 15, 5281 (2024).
Gu, L. et al. Color-tunable ultralong organic room temperature phosphorescence from a multicomponent copolymer. Nat. Commun. 11, 944 (2020).
Wei, J. et al. Conformation-dependent dynamic organic phosphorescence through thermal energy-driven molecular rotations. Nat. Commun. 14, 627 (2023).
Xie, Z. et al. Wide-range lifetime-tunable and responsive ultralong organic phosphorescent multi-host/guest system. Nat. Commun. 12, 3522 (2021).
Xu, Z. Stimulus-responsive emission via dynamic triplet energy transfer in organic room-temperature phosphorescence glass. Adv. Mater. 37, e2418778 (2025).
Zhu, X. et al. Temperature-dependent color-tunable afterglow in zirconium-doped CsCdCl3 perovskite for advanced anti-counterfeiting and thermal distribution detection. Small 20, 2306299 (2024).
Chen, T., Ma, Y. & Yan, D. Single-component 0D metal–organic halides with color-variable long-afterglow toward multi-level information security and white-light LED. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33, 2214962 (2023).
Peng, Y. et al. Multilevel stimulus-responsive room temperature phosphorescence achieved by efficient energy transfer from triplet excitons to Mn2+ pairs in a 2D hybrid metal halide. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35, 2420311 (2024).
Chen, X. et al. Bi3+/Eu3+ co-activated multimodal anti-counterfeiting material with white light emission and orange-yellow persistent luminescence. Laser Photonics Rev. 18, 2400283 (2024).
Zuo, Z.-H. et al. Thermal-responsive dynamic color-tunable persistent luminescence from green to deep red for advanced anti-counterfeiting. Chem. Eng. J. 446, 136976 (2022).
Zheng, W. et al. Unlocking high photosensitivity direct laser writing and observing atomic clustering in glass. Nat. Commun. 15, 8366 (2024).
Sun, K. et al. Three-dimensional direct lithography of stable perovskite nanocrystals in glass. Science 375, 307–310 (2022).
Wu, J. et al. Tight focusing holographic network enables 3D, real-time and accurate light-field modulation. Laser Photonics Rev 19, 2401742 (2025).
Lin, S. et al. High-security-level multi-dimensional optical storage medium: nanostructured glass embedded with LiGa5O8: Mn2+ with photostimulated luminescence. Light Sci. Appl. 9, 22 (2020).
Sun, Y. et al. Amorphous to crystalline phase transformation enables tunable persistent luminescence for multi-mode optical information storage. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34, 2406336 (2024).
Du, J. et al. Pushing trap-controlled persistent luminescence materials toward multi-responsive smart platforms: recent advances, mechanism, and frontier applications. Adv. Mater. 36, 2314083 (2024).
Li, X. et al. Thermal-triggered phase separation and ion exchange enable photoluminescence tuning of stable mixed-halide perovskite nanocrystals for dynamic display. Laser Photonics Rev. 18, 2301244 (2024).
Pan, Q., Yang, D., Dong, G., Qiu, J. & Yang, Z. Nanocrystal-in-glass composite (NGC): a powerful pathway from nanocrystals to advanced optical materials. Prog. Mater. Sci. 130, 100998 (2022).
Wang, Z. et al. The interface microenvironment mediates the emission of a semiconductor nanocluster via surface-dopant-involving direct charge transfer. Chem. Sci. 14, 10308–10317 (2023).
Wang, Z. et al. Atomic- and molecular-level modulation of Mn2+-related emission using atomically-precise metal chalcogenide semiconductor nanoclusters. Coord. Chem. Rev. 510, 215844 (2024).
Chen, L. et al. Intensive enhancement of near-infrared emission in ZnAl2O4: Fe3+ via Li-substitution for application in identifying lithium-bearing ores. Laser Photonics Rev. 19, 2402135 (2025).
Jiang, X. et al. Enhancement of light and X-ray charging in persistent luminescence nanoparticle scintillators Zn2SiO4: Mn2+, Yb3+, Li+. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 15, 21228–21238 (2023).
Syono, Y., Akimoto, S.-I. & Matsui, Y. High-pressure transformations in zinc silicates. J. Solid State Chem. 3, 369–380 (1971).
Liu, X., Kanzaki, M. & Xue, X. Crystal structures of Zn2SiO4 III and IV synthesized at 6.5–8 GPa and 1273 K. Phys. Chem. Miner. 40, 467–478 (2013).
Polarz, S. et al. A systematic study on zinc oxide materials containing group I metals (Li, Na, K)−synthesis from organometallic precursors, characterization, and properties. Chem. Mater. 21, 3889–3897 (2009).
Morad, V. et al. Manganese (II) in tetrahedral halide environment: factors governing bright green luminescence. Chem. Mater. 31, 10161–10169 (2019).
Zhang, X., Wang, J. & Han, J. Crystallization kinetics, structural and mechanical properties of transparent lithium aluminosilicate glass-ceramics. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 603, 122113 (2023).
Zheng, Q. et al. Understanding glass through differential scanning calorimetry. Chem. Rev. 119, 7848–7939 (2019).
Dou, X. et al. Color-tunable, excitation-dependent, and time-dependent afterglows from pure organic amorphous polymers. Adv. Mater. 32, e2004768 (2020).
Zhang, Y. et al. Adjusting TADF and phosphorescence for tailored dynamic time-dependent afterglow colored carbon dots spanning the full visible region. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 64, e202421421 (2025).
Liu, Y. et al. Carbon dots-inked paper with single/two-photon excited dual-mode thermochromic afterglow for advanced dynamic information encryption. Adv. Mater. 36, 2403775 (2024).
Nie, F. & Yan, D. Bio-sourced flexible supramolecular glasses for dynamic and full-color phosphorescence. Nat. Commun. 15, 9491 (2024).
Tulyaganov, D. U. et al. Fundamentals and advances in production and application of non-stoichiometric lithium disilicate glass-ceramics: a brief review. Ceram. Int. 51, 15067–15076 (2025).
Bertail, C. et al. Structural and photoluminescent properties of Zn2SiO4: Mn2+ nanoparticles prepared by a protected annealing process. Chem. Mater. 23, 2961–2967 (2011).
Afandi, M. M., Byeon, S., Kang, T., Kang, H. & Kim, J. Bright yellow luminescence from Mn2+-doped metastable zinc silicate nanophosphor with facile preparation and its practical application. Nanomaterials 14, 1395 (2024).
Lukić, S. R., Petrović, D. M., Dramićanin, M. D., Mitrić, M. & Ðačanin, L. J. Optical and structural properties of Zn2SiO4: Mn2+ green phosphor nanoparticles obtained by a polymer-assisted sol–gel method. Scr. Mater. 58, 655–658 (2008).
Cui, H., Zayat, M. & Levy, D. Nanoparticle synthesis of willemite doped with cobalt ions (Co0.05Zn1.95SiO4) by an epoxide-assisted sol−gel method. Chem. Mater. 17, 5562–5566 (2005).
Zhang, J.-C. et al. Color manipulation of intense multiluminescence from CaZnOS: Mn2+ by Mn2+ concentration effect. Chem. Mater. 27, 7481–7489 (2015).
Song, E. et al. Mn2+-activated dual-wavelength emitting materials toward a wearable optical fibre temperature sensor. Nat. Commun. 13, 2166 (2022).
Pallares, R. M., Su, X., Lim, S. H. & Thanh, N. T. K. Fine-tuning of gold nanorod dimensions and plasmonic properties using the Hofmeister effects. J. Mater. Chem. C 4, 53–61 (2016).
Zhan, C. et al. Mn2+-Mn2+ dimers induced robust light absorption in heavy Mn2+ doped ZnAl2O4 near-infrared phosphor with an excellent photoluminescence quantum yield and thermal stability. Adv. Opt. Mater. 12, 2400574 (2024).
Fang, Z., Peng, W., Zheng, S., Qiu, J. & Guan, B.-O. Controllable modulation of coordination environments of Mn2+ in glasses and glass-ceramics for tunable luminescence. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 40, 1658–1664 (2020).
Yang, L. et al. Recent progress in inorganic afterglow materials: mechanisms, persistent luminescent properties, modulating methods, and bioimaging applications. Adv. Opt. Mater. 11, 2202382 (2023).
Meng, L. et al. Simultaneous manipulation of O-doping and metal vacancy in atomically thin Zn10In16S34 nanosheet arrays toward improved photoelectrochemical performance. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 57, 16882–16887 (2018).
Pan, L. et al. Undoped ZnO is abundant with metal vacancies. Nano Energy 9, 71–79 (2014).
Wang, Z. et al. Manipulating oxygen vacancies by K+ doping and controlling Mn2+ deposition to boost energy storage in β-MnO2. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 14, 47725–47736 (2022).
Huang, K. et al. Enhancing light and X-ray charging in persistent luminescence nanocrystals for orthogonal afterglow anti-counterfeiting. Adv. Funct. Mater. 31, 2009920 (2021).
Yang, H. et al. Self-trapped excitons-based warm-white afterglow by room-temperature engineering toward an intelligent multi-channel information system. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34, 2311437 (2024).
He, S. et al. Highly stable orange-red long-persistent luminescent CsCdCl3: Mn2+ perovskite crystal. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 61, e202208937 (2022).
Tang, Z. et al. Highly efficient and ultralong afterglow emission with anti-thermal quenching from CsCdCl3: Mn perovskite single crystals. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 134, e202210975 (2022).
Klein, J. et al. Limitations of the tauc plot method. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33, 2304523 (2023).
Mott, N. F. & Davis, E. A. Electronic processes in non-crystalline materials. (Oxford 2012).
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant No. 62275233 (D.T), the Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant No. LR25E020002 (D.T) and No. LDG25F050001 (D.T. & J.Q.) and the Opening Project of State Key Laboratory of Advanced Glass Materials (D.T.). The authors gratefully acknowledge Zhejiang Lab for providing the instrumentation used in this study.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
W.Y. performed the experiments, collected the data, and wrote the initial manuscript. L.X., R.C., S.K. and Q.J. discussed the manuscript. T.D. conceived the idea, organized and supervised the project, interpreted the results, and revised the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Peer review
Peer review information
Nature Communications thanks Yixi Zhuang, Yuansheng Wang, who co-reviewed with Hang Lin, and the other anonymous reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work. A peer review file is available.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Source data
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Wu, Y., Li, X., Ruan, C. et al. Tough transparent glass ceramics for muti-mode programmable dynamic tunable persistent luminescence via phase engineering. Nat Commun (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-69202-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-69202-9
