Fig. 5: Evaluations of the cyclability at fast charging coupled with prolonged discharging.

a SEM images of the Li electrodes after the 1st stripping at 1 mA cm⁻² and 12 mA cm⁻² with a capacity of 3 mAh cm⁻². b Average overpotentials of the Li | |Li symmetric cells at incrementally increasing current densities. The plating and stripping current densities were identical. c Potential profiles of the 3rd cycle in Li | |Cu asymmetric cells at 1 mA cm⁻² with a capacity of 1 mAh cm⁻². d Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) profiles of Li | |Li symmetric cells after 5 cycles at 1 mA cm⁻² with a capacity of 1 mAh cm⁻². Inset: R_CT extracted from EIS profiles. e Constant current/constant voltage (CC/CV) profiles of Li | |NCM811 full-cells and f their cycling performance when charged at 4 C (1 C = 200 mA g⁻¹) in CC/CV mode and discharged at nC in CC mode in each cycle. g Cyclability evaluations of Li | |NCM811 full-cells at an fast-charging rate of 10 C with a 6-min time cutoff and 4 C discharge and h their potential profiles at the 10th, 100th_, and 200th cycles.