Abstract
Thin, conformable electronic skin (e-skin), capable of accurately perceiving various stimuli (e.g., temperature and pressure), is an important building block for various cutting-edge applications, including human healthcare, structural health monitoring, human-machine interfaces, and closed-loop device systems. However, crosstalk from multiple input signals severely deteriorates the sensing accuracy of the measured temperature and pressure. Moreover, different constituent materials and fabrication protocols utilized for flexible sensors hinder their integration towards multifunctional e-skin. Here, this work introduces mechanically and electrically hybrid networks (MEHNs) in functional nanocomposites for large-area, multiplexed, and decoupled sensing. The rigid, high-resistive vanadium oxide (VO2) microparticles with metal-insulator transition combined with soft, low-resistive liquid metal particles (LMPs) in MEHNs serve as temperature sensing units and mechanical buffers, respectively, leading to an ultra-high yet pressure-insensitive temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) of −2.23%. Modifying VO2 microparticles with silver nanoparticles to cancel the high TCR is combined with a porous structure to render the nanocomposite with temperature-insensitive pressure sensing with a sensitivity of 1.212% kPa−1. The same constituent material and fabrication protocol of the MEHN nanocomposites, along with their scalability and recyclability, can afford low-cost, large-scale, and multiplexed e-skin for broad application opportunities, including human and battery health monitoring, soft electrical impedance tomography, and robotic perception.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data generated in this study are provided in the Source Data file. All data are available from the corresponding author upon request. Source data are provided with this paper.
References
Liu, L. et al. Recent advances in flexible temperature sensors: materials, mechanism, fabrication, and applications. Adv. Sci. 11, 2405003 (2024).
Zhang, X. et al. Flexible temperature sensor with high reproducibility and wireless closed-loop system for decoupled multimodal health monitoring and personalized thermoregulation. Adv. Mater. 36, 2407859 (2024).
Liu, Z. et al. A thin-film temperature sensor based on a flexible electrode and substrate. Microsyst. Nanoeng. 7, 42 (2021).
Xu, Z. et al. A flexible pressure sensor with highly customizable sensitivity and linearity via positive design of microhierarchical structures with a hyperelastic model. Microsyst. Nanoeng. 9, 5 (2023).
Jiang, T., Wang, C., Ling, T., Sun, S. & Yang, L. Recent advances and new frontier of flexible pressure sensors: Structure engineering, performances and applications. Mater. Today Phys. 48, 101576 (2024).
Xu, C. et al. Flexible pressure sensors in human–machine interface applications. Small 20, 2306655 (2024).
Wang, X., Yu, J., Cui, Y. & Li, W. Research progress of flexible wearable pressure sensors. Sens. Actuators A: Phys. 330, 112838 (2021).
Liu, Y.-F. et al. Spider-inspired ultrasensitive flexible vibration sensor for multifunctional sensing. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12, 30871–30881 (2020).
Chen, X. et al. Bio-inspired flexible vibration visualization sensor based on piezo-electrochromic effect. J. Materiomics 6, 643–650 (2020).
Zarei M., Jeong A. W., Lee S. G. Whisker-implanted biomimetic electronic skin for tactile sensing and blind perception. Adv. Sci. n/a, 2408162 (2024).
Chun, S. et al. An artificial neural tactile sensing system. Nat. Electron. 4, 429–438 (2021).
Gao, H. et al. Ultrasensitive biomimetic skin with multimodal and photoelectric dual-signal sensing. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 16, 21073–21083 (2024).
Zhou, Q. et al. A flexible smart healthcare platform conjugated with artificial epidermis assembled by three-dimensionally conductive MOF network for gas and pressure sensing. Nano-Micro Lett. 17, 50 (2024).
Guo, X., Sun, Z., Zhu, Y. & Lee, C. Zero-biased bionic fingertip E-skin with multimodal tactile perception and artificial intelligence for augmented touch awareness. Adv. Mater. 36, 2406778 (2024).
Yang, J. C. et al. Electronic skin: recent progress and future prospects for skin-attachable devices for health monitoring. Robot. Prosthet. Adv. Mater. 31, 1904765 (2019).
Chen, L. et al. Flexible and transparent electronic skin sensor with sensing capabilities for pressure, temperature, and humidity. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 15, 24923–24932 (2023).
Liu, Y. et al. Electronic skin as wireless human-machine interfaces for robotic VR. Sci. Adv. 8, eabl6700.
Yang, X. et al. Electronic skin for health monitoring systems: properties, functions, and applications. Adv. Mater. 36, 2402542 (2024).
Cheng, M. et al. A review of flexible force sensors for human health monitoring. J. Adv. Res. 26, 53–68 (2020).
Yao, S., Swetha, P. & Zhu, Y. Nanomaterial-enabled wearable sensors for healthcare. Adv. Healthc. Mater. 7, 1700889 (2018).
Zhao, Z. et al. Large-scale integrated flexible tactile sensor array for sensitive smart robotic touch. ACS Nano 16, 16784–16795 (2022).
Luo, Z., Cheng, W., Zhao, T. & Xiang, N. Intelligent sensory systems toward soft robotics. Appl. Mater. Today 37, 102122 (2024).
Sun, T. et al. Artificial Intelligence Meets Flexible Sensors: Emerging Smart Flexible Sensing Systems Driven by Machine Learning and Artificial Synapses. Nano-Micro Lett. 16, 14 (2023).
Raspopovic, S., Valle, G. & Petrini, F. M. Sensory feedback for limb prostheses in amputees. Nat. Mater. 20, 925–939 (2021).
Zhang, Y. et al. Highly stable flexible pressure sensors with a quasi-homogeneous composition and interlinked interfaces. Nat. Commun. 13, 1317 (2022).
Tee, B. C. K. et al. Tunable flexible pressure sensors using microstructured elastomer geometries for intuitive electronics. Adv. Funct. Mater. 24, 5427–5434 (2014).
Chou, H.-H. et al. A chameleon-inspired stretchable electronic skin with interactive colour changing controlled by tactile sensing. Nat. Commun. 6, 8011 (2015).
Ha, M. et al. Bioinspired interlocked and hierarchical design of ZnO nanowire arrays for static and dynamic pressure-sensitive electronic skins. Adv. Funct. Mater. 25, 2841–2849 (2015).
Wang, Z., Zhang, L., Liu, J., Jiang, H. & Li, C. Flexible hemispheric microarrays of highly pressure-sensitive sensors based on breath figure method. Nanoscale 10, 10691–10698 (2018).
Bae, G. Y. et al. Pressure/temperature sensing bimodal electronic skin with stimulus discriminability and linear sensitivity. Adv. Mater. 30, 1803388 (2018).
Kwon, D. et al. Highly sensitive, flexible, and wearable pressure sensor based on a giant piezocapacitive effect of three-dimensional microporous elastomeric dielectric layer. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 8, 16922–16931 (2016).
Kim, J.-O. et al. Highly ordered 3D microstructure-based electronic skin capable of differentiating pressure, temperature, and proximity. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11, 1503–1511 (2019).
Descent P., Izquierdo R., Fayomi C. Printing of temperature and humidity sensors on flexible substrates for biomedical applications. In: 2018 IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS)) (2018).
Gu, J. F. et al. Multifunctional poly(vinyl alcohol) nanocomposite organohydrogel for flexible strain and temperature sensor. Acs Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12, 40815–40827 (2020).
Han, R. G. et al. Facile fabrication of rGO/LIG-based temperature sensor with high sensitivity. Mater. Lett. 304, 4 (2021).
Zhang, F., Zang, Y., Huang, D., Di, C. -a & Zhu, D. Flexible and self-powered temperature–pressure dual-parameter sensors using microstructure-frame-supported organic thermoelectric materials. Nat. Commun. 6, 8356 (2015).
Isoniemi, T., Tuukkanen, S., Cameron, D. C., Simonen, J. & Toppari, J. J. Measuring optical anisotropy in poly(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) films with added graphene. Org. Electron. 25, 317–323 (2015).
Yu, Y. Y., Peng, S. H., Blanloeuil, P., Wu, S. Y. & Wang, C. H. Wearable temperature sensors with enhanced sensitivity by engineering microcrack morphology in PEDOT:PSS-PDMS sensors. Acs Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12, 36578–36588 (2020).
Xu X.-B., Li Z.-M., Dai K., Yang M.-B. Anomalous attenuation of the positive temperature coefficient of resistivity in a carbon-black-filled polymer composite with electrically conductive in situ microfibrils. Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 032105 (2006).
Liu, H. et al. A flexible multimodal sensor that detects strain, humidity, temperature, and pressure with carbon black and reduced graphene oxide hierarchical composite on paper. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11, 40613–40619 (2019).
Chen, J. et al. Skin-inspired bimodal receptors for object recognition and temperature sensing simulation. Adv. Funct. Mater. (2024).
Gao, F.-L. et al. Ti3C2Tx MXene-based multifunctional tactile sensors for precisely detecting and distinguishing temperature and pressure stimuli. ACS Nano 17, 16036–16047 (2023).
Gao, F.-L. et al. Integrated temperature and pressure dual-mode sensors based on elastic PDMS foams decorated with thermoelectric PEDOT:PSS and carbon nanotubes for human energy harvesting and electronic-skin. J. Mater. Chem. A 10, 18256–18266 (2022).
Ge, C. et al. Dual-function tactile sensor with linear pressure and temperature perception at low degree of coupling. Adv. Intell. Syst. 5, (2023).
Pang Z., Zhao Y., Luo N., Chen D., Chen M. Flexible pressure and temperature dual-mode sensor based on buckling carbon nanofibers for respiration pattern recognition. Sci. Rep. 12, (2022).
Wang, C., Xia, K., Zhang, M., Jian, M. & Zhang, Y. An all-silk-derived dual-mode E-skin for simultaneous temperature-pressure detection. ACS Appl Mater. Interfaces 9, 39484–39492 (2017).
Cai, M. et al. A multifunctional electronic skin based on patterned metal films for tactile sensing with a broad linear response range. Sci. Adv. 7, 10 (2021).
Duan, S. et al. Bioinspired Young’s Modulus-hierarchical e-skin with decoupling multimodality and neuromorphic encoding outputs to biosystems. Adv. Sci. (2023).
Boer, M., Duchnik, E., Maleszka, R. & Marchlewicz, M. Structural and biophysical characteristics of human skin in maintaining proper epidermal barrier function. Postepy Dermatologii I Alergologii 33, 1–5 (2016).
Hong, Q. et al. 3D dual-mode tactile sensor with decoupled temperature and pressure sensing: Toward biological skins for wearable devices and smart robotics. Sens Actuator B-Chem. 404, 11 (2024).
Wang, J. C. et al. Integrating in-plane thermoelectricity and out-plane piezoresistivity for fully decoupled temperature-pressure sensing. Small 20, 10 (2024).
Yuan, T. K. et al. Fully inkjet-printed dual-mode sensor for simultaneous pressure and temperature sensing with high decoupling. Chem. Eng. J. 473, 13 (2023).
Liao, F. et al. Ultrasensitive flexible temperature-mechanical dual-parameter sensor based on vanadium dioxide films. IEEE Electron Device Lett. 38, 1128–1131 (2017).
Fassler, A. & Majidi, C. Liquid-phase metal inclusions for a conductive polymer composite. Adv. Mater. 27, 1928–1932 (2015).
Pan, C. et al. A liquid-metal–elastomer nanocomposite for stretchable dielectric materials. Adv. Mater. 31, 1900663 (2019).
Saborio, M. G. et al. Liquid metal droplet and graphene co-fillers for electrically conductive flexible composites. Small 16, 1903753 (2020).
Zhao, X. et al. Flexible pressure sensor based on CNTs/CB/PDMS sponge with porous and microdome structures for sitting posture discrimination. Chem. Eng. J. 502, 157878 (2024).
Zeng, P. et al. Porous Composite PDMS for a pressure sensor with a wide linear range. ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 7, 455–465 (2024).
Zhang, J. et al. Porous nanocomposites with enhanced intrinsic piezoresistive sensitivity for bioinspired multimodal tactile sensors. Microsyst. Nanoengineering 10, 19 (2024).
Li, Y. et al. Linear range enhancement in flexible piezoresistive sensors enabled by double-layer corrugated structure. Adv. Funct. Mater. n/a, e13480 (2025).
Wu, L. et al. Beetle-inspired gradient slant structures for capacitive pressure sensor with a broad linear response range. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34, 2312370 (2024).
Yang, R. et al. Iontronic pressure sensor with high sensitivity over ultra-broad linear range enabled by laser-induced gradient micro-pyramids. Nat. Commun. 14, 2907 (2023).
Djajaputra, D. Electrical impedance tomography: methods, history and applications. Med. Phys. 32, 2731–2731 (2005).
Duan, X., Taurand, S. & Soleimani, M. Artificial skin through super-sensing method and electrical impedance data from conductive fabric with aid of deep learning. Sci. Rep. 9, 8831 (2019).
Cheney, M., Isaacson, D., Newell, J. C., Simske, S. & Goble, J. NOSER: An algorithm for solving the inverse conductivity problem. Int. J. Imaging Syst. Technol. 2, 66–75 (1990).
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by the Fundamental and Interdisciplinary Disciplines Breakthrough Plan of the Ministry of Education of China under grant No. JYB2025XDXM406, and the Natural Science Foundation of China under grant Nos. 62427806 and 62301116. H.C. acknowledges the support provided by NIH (Award No. R21EB030140), NSF (Grant Nos. 2309323, 2243979, 2319139, and 2222654), and Penn State University.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
J.Z., H.C., and J.L. conceptualized the study. J.Z., Y.C., H.L., Y.H.C., J.Y., H.C., and Y.L. developed the methodology. X.L., J.L., and Y.Q. performed the primary experiments and conducted data analysis and curation. Y.X. and X.M. assisted with the experiments. J.Z., Y.C., H.L., H.C., and Y.L. drafted the manuscript. Z.H., M.G., T.P., J.Y., H.C., and Y.L. reviewed the manuscript and provided critical revisions. J.Z. and Y.L. acquired funding and supervised the project. All authors discussed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Peer review
Peer review information
Nature Communications thanks Bin Hu and Zheng Yan for their contribution to the peer review of this work. A peer review file is available.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary information
Source data
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Zhu, J., Liu, X., Li, J. et al. Flexible, large-area, recyclable, decoupled dual sensing of temperature and pressure enabled by mechanically-electrically hybrid networks. Nat Commun (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-71572-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-71572-z
