Fig. 1: Simulation models for AIMD calculations and the average intercalation voltage profile.

a Pristine and S-substituted LNMO (003) surfaces, and b electrolyte including Li salt (LiPF6) and solvent mixture (EC/DEC). c Voltage profile for the pristine and S-substituted LNMO (003) surfaces calculated at different delithiation levels. During the delithiation process, Li ions were removed from the first- and second-layer LNMO (003) surface. After the removal of Li ions from both layers, the system was equilibrated for 5 ps.