Fig. 3: Theoretical analysis of electronic properties.

a Calculated Bader charge (|e|) of individual O atoms in the pristine LNMO (003) surface. The transparent line indicates the Bader charge of On− anion, and all the value of Bader charge is blow than the black dashed line (a critical point of −0.4). The orange and green line in a represents the Bader charge of O atoms in the O2 molecule. The red dashed line indicates the average charge of O atoms in the system. b The change of atomic charge (ΔQ in |e|/atom) of O, Ni, and Mn atoms in the pristine LNMO (003) surface at different levels of delithiation. c Calculated Bader charge (|e|) of individual O atoms in the S-substituted LNMO (003) surface. d An investigation into the ΔQ (|e|/atom) of O and S atoms in the pristine and S-substituted surfaces.