Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Article
  • Published:

Ecological and social pressures drive same-sex sexual behaviour in non-human primates

Nature Ecology & Evolution (2026)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

Same-sex sexual behaviour (SSB) is widespread across animal species; however, its evolutionary origins and ecological underpinnings remain poorly understood. In social animals, SSB is probably shaped by both genetic and environmental factors. For instance, a recent study in rhesus macaques indicates that while SSB is partially heritable and genetically based, it is also strongly influenced by environmental and social conditions. Here we compiled species-level data on 491 non-human primate species, documenting SSB occurrence and prevalence in 59 species, and examined its associations with 15 environmental, life history and social traits using phylogenetic regression and structural equation modelling. SSB occurrence was more likely in species inhabiting drier environments with increased food scarcity and predation pressure, in species with greater size dimorphism and longer lifespans and in those with more complex social structures and hierarchies. Structural equation modelling further indicated that environmental and life history traits influence SSB mainly indirectly, whereas social complexity directly promotes its occurrence. Together, these findings highlight SSB as a context-dependent behaviour shaped by interactions among ecological, life history and social factors, offering insights into the sexual diversity and social evolution of primates.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on SpringerLink
  • Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: Phylogenetic distribution of SSB across non-human primates.
Fig. 2: A multivariate framework for the evolution of SSB in non-human primates.

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

Full datasets are available via GitHub at https://github.com/SavolainenLab/Coxshall-et-al. Additional data and model outputs are available in Supplementary Information.

Code availability

The code is available via GitHub at https://github.com/SavolainenLab/Coxshall-et-al/blob/main/code.

References

  1. Lerch, B. A. & Servedio, M. R. Same-sex sexual behaviour and selection for indiscriminate mating. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 5, 135–141 (2021).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Gómez, J. M., González-Megías, A. & Verdú, M. The evolution of same-sex sexual behaviour in mammals. Nat. Commun. 14, 5719 (2023).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Bailey, N. W. & Zuk, M. Same-sex sexual behavior and evolution. Trends Ecol. Evol. 24, 439–446 (2009).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Savolainen, V. et al. A broader cultural view is necessary to study the evolution of sexual orientation. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 8, 181–183 (2024).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Monk, J. D., Giglio, E., Kamath, A., Lambert, M. R. & McDonough, C. E. An alternative hypothesis for the evolution of same-sex sexual behaviour in animals. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 3, 1622–1631 (2019).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Bagemihl, B. Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity (St. Martin’s Press, 1999).

  7. Anderson, K. A. et al. Same-sex sexual behaviour among mammals is widely observed, yet seldomly reported: evidence from an online expert survey. PLoS ONE 19, e0304885 (2024).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Clive, J., Flintham, E. & Savolainen, V. Understanding same-sex sexual behaviour requires thorough testing rather than reinvention of theory. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 4, 784–785 (2020).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Poiani, A. Homosexual Behaviour in Animals: An Evolutionary Perspective (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2010).

  10. Clive, J., Flintham, E. & Savolainen, V. Same-sex sociosexual behaviour is widespread and heritable in male rhesus macaques. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 7, 1287–1301 (2023).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Huber, H. F. et al. Comparative lifespan and healthspan of nonhuman primate species common to biomedical research. GeroScience 47, 135–151 (2025).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Estrada, G. R. & Marshall, A. J. Terrestriality across the primate order: a review and analysis of ground use in primates. Evol. Anthropol. 33, e22032 (2024).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Grueter, C. C. & Wilson, M. L. Do we need to reclassify the social systems of gregarious apes?. Evol. Anthropol. 30, 316–326 (2021).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Fruth, B. & Hohmann, G. in Homosexual Behaviour in Animals: An Evolutionary Perspective (eds Sommer, V. & Vasey, P.L.) 294–315 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006).

  15. Hou, R. et al. Cold and hungry: combined effects of low temperature and resource scarcity on an edge-of-range temperate primate, the golden snub-nose monkey. Ecography 43, 1672–1682 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  16. Freckleton, R. P., Harvey, P. H. & Pagel, M. Phylogenetic analysis and comparative data: a test and review of evidence. Am. Nat. 160, 712–726 (2002).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Jankowiak, Ł, Tryjanowski, P., Hetmański, T. & Skórka, P. Experimentally evoked same-sex sexual behaviour in pigeons: better to be in a female–female pair than alone. Sci. Rep. 8, 1654 (2018).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Parsons, P. A. Environments and evolution: interactions between stress, resource inadequacy and energetic efficiency. Biol. Rev. Camb. Philos. Soc. 80, 589–610 (2005).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Testard, C. et al. Rhesus macaques build new social connections after a natural disaster. Curr. Biol. 31, 2299–2309 (2021).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Young, C., Majolo, B., Heistermann, M., Schülke, O. & Ostner, J. Responses to social and environmental stress are attenuated by strong male bonds in wild macaques. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 111, 18195–18200 (2014).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Ducheminsky, N., Henzi, S. P. & Barrett, L. Responses of vervet monkeys in large troops to terrestrial and aerial predator alarm calls. Behav. Ecol. 25, 1474–1484 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  22. Clutton-Brock, T. H. & Huchard, E. Social competition and selection in males and females. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 368, 20130074 (2013).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Vasey, P. L. Function and phylogeny: the evolution of same-sex sexual behavior in primates. J. Psychol. Hum. Sex. 18, 215–244 (2007).

    Google Scholar 

  24. Dolotovskaya, S., Roos, C. & Heymann, E. W. Genetic monogamy and mate choice in a pair-living primate. Sci. Rep. 10, 20328 (2020).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Larson, S. M., Colchero, F., Jones, O. R., Williams, L. & Fernandez-Duque, E. Age- and sex-specific mortality of wild and captive populations of a monogamous pair-bonded primate (Aotus azarae). Am. J. Primatol. 78, 315–325 (2016).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Dunbar, R. I. M. Structural and cognitive mechanisms of group cohesion in primates. Behav. Brain Sci. 48, e162 (2024).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Kappeler, P. M. & Schäffler, L. The lemur syndrome unresolved: extreme male reproductive skew in sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi), a sexually monomorphic primate with female dominance. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 62, 1007–1015 (2008).

    Google Scholar 

  28. Vasey, P. L. & Gauthier, C. Skewed sex ratios and female homosexual activity in Japanese macaques: an experimental analysis. Primates 41, 17–25 (2000).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Muller, M. N. et al. Sexual dimorphism in chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) and human age-specific fertility. J. Hum. Evol. 144, 102795 (2020).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Dunbar, R. I. M. & Shultz, S. Social complexity and the fractal structure of group size in primate social evolution. Biol. Rev. 96, 1889–1906 (2021).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Lane, S. M., Haughan, A. E., Evans, D., Tregenza, T. & House, C. M. Same-sex sexual behaviour as a dominance display. Anim. Behav. 114, 113–118 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  32. Wittig, R. M. et al. Focused grooming networks and stress alleviation in wild female baboons. Horm. Behav. 54, 170–177 (2008).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Marty, J. S. et al. Dominance, coloration and social and sexual behavior in male drills (Mandrillus leucophaeus). Int. J. Primatol. 30, 807–823 (2009).

    Google Scholar 

  34. Setchell, J. M. Sexual selection and the differences between the sexes in mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx). Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 159, 105–129 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  35. Cunningham, E. & Benítez, M. E. From pathology to pleasure: reframing mechanistic studies on same-sex sexual behavior in primates. Horm. Behav. 160, 105476 (2024).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Murad, H., Fleischman, A., Sadetzki, S., Geyer, O. & Freedman, L. Small samples and ordered logistic regression: does it help to collapse categories of outcome?. Am. Stat. 57, 155–160 (2003).

    Google Scholar 

  37. French, A. R. & Smith, T. B. Importance of body size in determining dominance hierarchies among diverse tropical frugivores. Biotropica 37, 96–101 (2005).

    Google Scholar 

  38. Guo, S. T. et al. Male social rank and food competition in a primate multi-level society. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 173, 630–642 (2020).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Pistón, N. et al. Multidimensional ecological analyses demonstrate how interactions between functional traits shape fitness and life history strategies. J. Ecol. 107, 2317–2328 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  40. Clay, Z. & de Waal, F. B. M. Sex and strife: post-conflict sexual contacts in bonobos. Behaviour 152, 313–334 (2015).

    Google Scholar 

  41. Stephens, S. B. Z. & Wallen, K. Environmental and social influences on neuroendocrine puberty and behavior in macaques and other nonhuman primates. Horm. Behav. 64, 226–239 (2013).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Kamilar, J. M. & Beaudrot, L. Effects of environmental stress on primate populations. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 47, 417–434 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  43. Setchell, J. M., Smith, T., Wickings, E. J. & Knapp, L. A. Stress, social behaviour, and secondary sexual traits in a male primate. Horm. Behav. 58, 720–728 (2010).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Chowdhury, V. S., Renaudeau, D. & Bungo, T. Editorial: Animal responses to climatic stress: strategies for coping with harsh climatic conditions. Front. Anim. Sci. 4, 1288239 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  45. Chang, C. & Todd, P. A. Reduced predation pressure as a potential driver of prey diversity and abundance in complex habitats. NPJ Biodivers. 2, 1–5 (2023).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Milewski, T. M., Lee, W., Champagne, F. A. & Curley, J. P. Behavioural and physiological plasticity in social hierarchies. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 377, 20200443 (2022).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Thompson, C. L. & Hermann, E. A. Behavioral thermoregulation in primates: a review of literature and future avenues. Am. J. Primatol. 86, e23614 (2024).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Testard, C. et al. Ecological disturbance alters the adaptive benefits of social ties. Science 384, 1330–1335 (2024).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Perry, S. Social traditions and social learning in capuchin monkeys (Cebus). Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 366, 988–996 (2011).

    Google Scholar 

  50. Vasey, P. L. Homosexual behavior in primates: a review of evidence and theory. Int. J. Primatol. 16, 173–204 (1995).

    Google Scholar 

  51. Stringer, C. Human evolution: the lonely Neanderthal?. Curr. Biol. 35, 29–31 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  52. Marshall, M. Who were the ancient Denisovans? Fossils reveal secrets about the mysterious humans. Nature 641, 840–842 (2025).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Callaway, E. Oldest Homo sapiens fossil claim rewrites our species’ history. Nature https://doi.org/10.1038/NATURE.2017.22114 (2017).

  54. White, T. D., Lovejoy, C. O., Asfaw, B., Carlson, J. P. & Suwa, G. Neither chimpanzee nor human, Ardipithecus reveals the surprising ancestry of both. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 112, 4877–4884 (2015).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. VanderLaan, D. P. et al. The “female fertility–social stratification–hypergyny” hypothesis of male homosexual preference: factual, conceptual and methodological errors in Barthes et al. Evol. Hum. Behav. 35, 445–447 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  56. Barthes, J., Godelle, B. & Raymond, M. Human social stratification and hypergyny: toward an understanding of male homosexual preference. Evol. Hum. Behav. 34, 155–163 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  57. Barthes, J., Crochet, P.-A. & Raymond, M. Male homosexual preference: where, when, why?. PLoS ONE 10, e0134817 (2015).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  58. Topping, A. One in 10 young adults in UK identify as lesbian, gay or bisexual—ONS. The Guardian (2025).

  59. Mental health challenges of young adults illuminated in new report. Harvard Graduate School of Education https://www.gse.harvard.edu/ideas/news/23/10/mental-health-challenges-young-adults-illuminated-new-report (2023).

  60. Ganna, A. et al. Large-scale GWAS reveals insights into the genetic architecture of same-sex sexual behavior. Science 365, e7693 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  61. Hinchliff, C. E. et al. Synthesis of phylogeny and taxonomy into a comprehensive tree of life. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 112, 12764–12769 (2015).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Michonneau, F., Brown, J. W. & Winter, D. J. rotl: an R package to interact with the Open Tree of Life data. Methods Ecol. Evol. 7, 1476–1481 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  63. Posit Team. RStudio: Integrated Development Environment for R. R package version 4.4.3 (2023).

  64. Arnold, C., Matthews, L. J. & Nunn, C. L. The 10kTrees website: a new online resource for primate phylogeny. Evol. Anthropol. 19, 114–118 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  65. Upham, N. S., Esselstyn, J. A. & Jetz, W. Inferring the mammal tree: species-level sets of phylogenies for questions in ecology, evolution, and conservation. PLoS Biol. 17, e3000494 (2019).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Rylands, A. B. & Mittermeier, R. A. Primate taxonomy: species and conservation. Evol. Anthropol. 23, 8–10 (2014).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Estrada, A. et al. Impending extinction crisis of the world’s primates: why primates matter. Sci. Adv. 3, e1600946 (2017).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Gogarten, J. F. et al. Primate phageomes are structured by superhost phylogeny and environment. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 118, e2013535118 (2021).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Wisniewski, A. L., Lloyd, G. T. & Slater, G. J. Extant species fail to estimate ancestral geographical ranges at older nodes in primate phylogeny. Proc. R. Soc. B. 289, 20212535 (2022).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. Garamszegi, L. Z. (ed.) Modern Phylogenetic Comparative Methods and Their Application in Evolutionary Biology: Concepts and Practice (Springer, 2014).

  71. Bramer, W. M., Rethlefsen, M. L., Kleijnen, J. & Franco, O. H. Optimal database combinations for literature searches in systematic reviews: a prospective exploratory study. Syst. Rev. 6, 245 (2017).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  72. Falagas, M. E., Pitsouni, E. I., Malietzis, G. A. & Pappas, G. Comparison of PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar: strengths and weaknesses. FASEB J. 22, 338–342 (2008).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Ashe-Jepson, E. et al. Hot topics in butterfly research: current knowledge and gaps in understanding of the impacts of temperature on butterflies. Insect Conserv. Divers. 17, 1–15 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  74. Methley, A. M. et al. PICO, PICOS and SPIDER: a comparison study of specificity and sensitivity in three search tools for qualitative systematic reviews. BMC Health Serv. Res. 14, 579 (2014).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  75. Cunningham, E. et al. A systematic review of same-sex sexual behaviors across primates. OSF https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/F9A24 (2023).

  76. The IUCN red list of threatened species. IUCN https://www.iucnredlist.org/en (2025).

  77. Climate Data Store (Copernicus Climate Change Service, accessed 6 March 2025); https://cds.climate.copernicus.eu/

  78. Nguyen, X. P., Hoang, A. T., Ölçer, A. I. & Huynh, T. T. Record decline in global CO2 emissions prompted by COVID-19 pandemic and its implications on future climate change policies. Energy Sources Part A 47, 4699–4702 (2025).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Forster, P. M. et al. Current and future global climate impacts resulting from COVID-19. Nat. Clim. Change 10, 913–919 (2020).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Hersbach, H. et al. ERA5 monthly averaged data on single levels from 1940 to present. Copernicus Climate Change Service Climate Data Store https://doi.org/10.24381/cds.f17050d7 (2025).

  81. Muñoz Sabater, J. et al. ERA5-Land monthly averaged data from 1950 to present. Copernicus Climate Change Service Climate Data Store https://doi.org/10.24381/cds.e2161bac (2025).

  82. Hijmans, R. J. et al. terra: Spatial Data Analysis. R package version 1.8-54 (2025).

  83. Shultz, S. Primates as Prey: Ecological, Morphological and Behavioral Relationships Between Primate Species and Their Predators. PhD thesis, Univ. Cambridge (2001).

  84. Animal Diversity Web (ADW, accessed 11 March 2025); https://animaldiversity.org

  85. New England Primate Conservancy (accessed 11 March 2025); https://neprimateconservancy.org

  86. Harmon, L. J., Weir, J. T., Brock, C. D., Glor, R. E. & Challenger, W. GEIGER: investigating evolutionary radiations. Bioinformatics 24, 129–131 (2008).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Tung Ho, L. S. I. & Ané, C. A linear-time algorithm for Gaussian and non-Gaussian trait evolution models. Syst. Biol. 63, 397–408 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  88. Kappeler, P. M. & van Schaik, C. P. Methodological and evolutionary aspects of reconciliation among primates. Ethology 92, 51–69 (1992).

    Google Scholar 

  89. Goolsby, E. W., Bruggeman, J. & Ané, C. Rphylopars: fast multivariate phylogenetic comparative methods for missing data and within-species variation. Methods Ecol. Evol. 8, 22–27 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  90. Schafer, J. L. & Graham, J. W. Missing data: our view of the state of the art. Psychol. Methods 7, 147–177 (2002).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Gelman, A. Scaling regression inputs by dividing by two standard deviations. Stat. Med. 27, 2865–2873 (2008).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Field, A., Miles, J. & Field, Z. Discovering Statistics Using R (SAGE Publications, 2012).

  93. Bürkner, P.-C. brms: an R package for Bayesian multilevel models using Stan. J. Stat. Softw. 80, 1–28 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  94. Hadfield, J. D. MCMC methods for multi-response generalized linear mixed models: The MCMCglmm R package. J. Stat. Softw. 33, 1–22 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  95. Lei, P.-W. & Wu, Q. Introduction to structural equation modeling: issues and practical considerations. Educ. Meas. Issues Pract. 26, 33–43 (2007).

    Google Scholar 

  96. Vehtari, A., Gelman, A. & Gabry, J. Practical Bayesian model evaluation using leave-one-out cross-validation and WAIC. Stat. Comput. 27, 1413–1432 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  97. Mundry, R. in Modern Phylogenetic Comparative Methods and Their Application in Evolutionary Biology: Concepts and Practice (ed. Garamszegi, L. Z.) 131–153 (Springer, 2014).

  98. Koenig, A. Competition for resources and its behavioral consequences among female primates. Int. J. Primatol. 23, 759–783 (2002).

    Google Scholar 

  99. Guo, S.-T., Li, B.-G., Watanabe, K., Li, J.-H. & Zhu, P. Male social rank and food competition in a primate multi-level society. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 173, 630–642 (2020).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Micheletta, J. et al. Social bonds affect anti-predator behaviour in a tolerant species of macaque, Macaca nigra. Proc. R. Soc. B 279, 4042–4050 (2012).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  101. Zhu, P. et al. Correlated evolution of social organization and lifespan in mammals. Nat. Commun. 14, 372 (2023).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This paper is dedicated to the memory of the late Jane Goodall, whose remarkable contributions and enduring spirit continue to inspire us all. We thank M. Balducci, L. Bell-Roberts, M. Benitez, L. Brent, T. Brook, L. Cooke, J. Davies, A. Melin and K. Piponi for comments on the paper; B. Sadoughi and A. Sandel for providing photos; and the Evolution Education Trust (V.S., C.C.), American Institute of Bisexuality (V.S.), Natural Environment Research Council UK (M.N.), Royal Society (V.S.) and the Bumblebee Conservation Trust (M.N.) for funding. For the purpose of open access, the corresponding author has applied a ‘Creative Commons Attribution’ (CC BY) licence to any author-accepted paper version arising from this work.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Georgina Mace Centre for the Living Planet, Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Ascot, UK

    Chloë Coxshall, Miles Nesbit, Josh Hodge & Vincent Savolainen

Authors
  1. Chloë Coxshall
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Miles Nesbit
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Josh Hodge
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Vincent Savolainen
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

C.C. compiled all data and conducted all analyses with support from M.N. and J.H. C.C. and V.S. wrote the paper with comments from M.N. and J.H. V.S. supervised the study.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Vincent Savolainen.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Peer review

Peer review information

Nature Ecology & Evolution thanks Isabelle Winder and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Supplementary Information

Supplementary Fig. 1.

Reporting Summary

Supplementary Tables

Supplementary Tables 1–29.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Coxshall, C., Nesbit, M., Hodge, J. et al. Ecological and social pressures drive same-sex sexual behaviour in non-human primates. Nat Ecol Evol (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-025-02945-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Version of record:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-025-02945-8

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing