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Taxonomic expansion and reorganization of Flaviviridae

Nature Microbiology volume 10, pages 3026–3037 (2025)Cite this article

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Abstract

Flaviviridae is a family of non-segmented positive-sense RNA viruses that includes major pathogens such as hepatitis C virus, dengue viruses and yellow fever virus. Recent large-scale metagenomic surveys have identified many RNA viruses related to members of this family, such as orthoflaviviruses and pestiviruses. These viruses diverge by having different genome lengths and configurations, and host range. Here we performed an analysis of RNA-directed RNA polymerase (RdRP) hallmark gene sequences of flaviviruses and ‘flavi-like’ viruses. We uncovered four divergent clades and multiple lineages that are congruent with phylogenies of their helicase genes, protein profile hidden Markov model profiles, and evolutionary relationships based on predicted RdRP protein structures. These results support their classification into three families (Flaviviridae, Pestiviridae and Hepaciviridae) and 12 genera in the established order Amarillovirales, with groupings correlating with genome properties and host range. This taxonomy provides a framework for future evolutionary studies on this important viral family.

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Fig. 1: Genome organizational and genetic diversity of flaviviruses and flavi-like viruses.
Fig. 2: Helicase domain (NS3) amino-acid sequence phylogeny supports partitioning of flaviviruses and flavi-like viruses into four main clades.
Fig. 3: RdRP domain (NS5/NS5B) structural comparison supports partitioning of flaviviruses and flavi-like viruses into four main clades.
Fig. 4: Alignment-free hidden Markov model homology analysis supports partitioning of flaviviruses and flavi-like viruses into one order and four family rank clades.
Fig. 5: Diagrammatic summary of suggested changes to flavivirus taxonomy.

Data availability

Databases, sequence alignments and raw sequence distance data are provided in Supplementary Information. All RdRP predicted structures and resultant structure-based trees can be found in GitHub at https://github.com/GroveLab/Flavi_RdRp_Structures_Simmonds_2025 (ref. 59).

Code availability

All code used in the analysis is freely available from the sources cited in the manuscript. Correspondence about the analysis should be addressed to P.S. or J.C.O.M. (RdRP sequence analysis), J.G. (RdRP structure analysis), R.M. (GRAViTy analysis) or A.B. (helicase analysis).

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Acknowledgements

We thank A. Crane for critically editing the manuscript. This work was supported in part through a Laulima Government Solutions, LLC, prime contract with the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (Contract No. HHSN272201800013C). J.H.K. performed this work as an employee of Tunnell Government Services (TGS), a subcontractor of Laulima Government Solutions, LLC, under Contract No. HHSN272201800013C. N.V. acknowledges partial support from the Centers for Research in Emerging Infectious Diseases (CREID) Coordinating Research on Emerging Arboviral Threats Encompassing the NEOtropics (CREATE-NEO) U01AI151807 grant by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). A.B. was supported by a postdoctoral fellowship from Foundation pour la Recherche Mèdicale (grant number SPF202110014092). J.G. was supported by a Wellcome Trust/Royal Society Sir Henry Dale Fellowship (107653/Z/15/Z) and MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research core support from the Medical Research Council (MC_UU_00034/1). J.T.S. was supported by Veterans Administration Merit Review BX000207 and VA SEQCure Network grants. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as necessarily representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of the US Department of Health and Human Services or of the institutions and companies affiliated with the authors. Mention of trade names, commercial products or organizations does not imply endorsement by the US Government.

Author information

Author notes

  1. Peter Simmonds

    Present address: Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland

  2. These authors contributed equally: Anamarija Butković, Joe Grove, Richard Mayne, Jonathon C. O. Mifsud.

  3. These authors jointly supervised this work: Peter Simmonds, Jens H. Kuhn.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

    Peter Simmonds, Richard Mayne & Donald B. Smith

  2. Archaeal Virology Unit, Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR6047, Paris, France

    Anamarija Butković

  3. MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, UK

    Joe Grove

  4. Sydney Institute for Infectious Diseases, School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

    Jonathon C. O. Mifsud

  5. Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany

    Martin Beer

  6. Copenhagen Hepatitis C Program (CO-HEP), Department of Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital, Hvidovre, and Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

    Jens Bukh

  7. Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Virology, Berlin, Germany

    J. Felix Drexler

  8. Center for Vaccines and Immunity, The Research Institute at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA

    Amit Kapoor

  9. Department of Infectious Diseases, Molecular Virology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany

    Volker Lohmann

  10. Departments of Internal Medicine, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa and Iowa City VA Healthcare, Iowa City, IA, USA

    Jack T. Stapleton

  11. Department of Pathology and Center for Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA

    Nikos Vasilakis

  12. Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, Division of Clinical Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, USA

    Jens H. Kuhn

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Contributions

P.S. and J.H.K., in correspondence with other members of the ICTV Flaviviridae Study Group (M.B., J.B., J.F.D., A.K., V.L., J.T.S., D.B.S. and N.V.), conceived the study. P.S., A.B., J.G., R.M, J.C.O.M. and J.H.K. conceptualized the experimental section. P.S., A.B., J.G., R.M., D.B.S. and J.C.O.M. performed analyses. All authors wrote/revised the manuscript and P.S. and J.H.K. supervised the work. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Peter Simmonds or Jens H. Kuhn.

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Nature Microbiology thanks Patrick Dolan, Alexander Ploss and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

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Extended data

Extended Data Table 1 Listing of hosts where ’flavi-like‘ viruses have been described
Full size table

Extended Data Fig. 1 Comparison of phylogenetic trees of RNA-directed RNA polymerase domain (NS5/NS5B) produced by different tree-building methods.

Phylogenetic trees constructed by likelihood (a, b) and distance-based (c) methods using flavivirus and ‘flavi-like’ RNA-directed RNA polymerase (RdRP) domain amino-acid sequences. Clades (I–IV) and lineages (a–w) labelled in each tree are based on those in Fig. 1b. Tentative threshold levels of divergence separating clades and lineages are shown as red dotted lines in BEAST and UPGMA trees. An alternative threshold corresponding to the assignment of lineages Ia-Id to a common lineage is shown in a blue dotted line. Abbreviations: BP, before present; BEAST, Bayesian evolutionary analysis by sampling trees cross-platform program; JTT, Jones-Taylor-Thornton matrix; ML, maximum likelihood; UPGMA, unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean.

Extended Data Fig. 2 Heatmap and dendrogram depicting relationships among classified flaviviruses and ‘flavi-like’ viruses.

Clades I–IV identified in the RdRP phylogeny (Fig. 1b) were added to equivalent branches in dendrogram. Bootstrap support values (10 iterations) for deeper branches are shown in red if ≥70%. A copy of the figure with the branches individually labelled is provided as Fig. S3.

Extended Data Fig. 3 Mean pairwise amino acid sequence identities between lineages in clades I–III.

Mean pairwise sequence identities of RdRP domain amino acid sequences between and within lineages of clades I–III. Dotted line indicates an approximate threshold dividing within- and between-lineage distances; between-lineage comparisons above threshold shaded in grey; within-lineage distances below the inter-lineage threshold shown in black.

Supplementary information

Supplementary Information (download PDF )

Labelled version of phylogenetic trees and dendrograms, and results from an analysis of protein structure relationships using a method different from that shown in Fig. 3.

Reporting Summary (download PDF )

Supplementary Data 1

FASTA alignment.

Supplementary Data 2

Tree file with sequence label annotations.

Supplementary Data 3

FASTA alignment.

Supplementary Data 4

GRAViTy run parameters.

Supplementary Table 5 (download XLSX )

Sequence listing.

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Simmonds, P., Butković, A., Grove, J. et al. Taxonomic expansion and reorganization of Flaviviridae. Nat Microbiol 10, 3026–3037 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-025-02134-0

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