Abstract
Fully stretchable organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), composed entirely of intrinsically stretchable materials, are essential for on-skin displays1,2,3. However, their low device efficiency has been a persistent barrier to practical applications for more than a decade4. Here we addressed this challenge by incorporating an intrinsically stretchable exciplex-assisted phosphorescent (ExciPh) layer. The elastomer-tolerant triplet-recycling mechanism mitigates exciton energy transfer limitations arising from the insulating elastomer matrix, yielding a light-emitting layer with more than 200% stretchability and an external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 21.7%. To translate this performance to fully stretchable devices, we integrated MXene-contact stretchable electrodes (MCSEs), which feature high mechanical robustness and tunable work function (WF), ensuring efficient hole and electron injection. These advances enable fully stretchable OLEDs with a record EQE of 17.0% and minimal luminescence loss under 60% strain. This approach to designing high-efficiency, mechanically compliant optoelectronics will enable the next-generation wearable and deformable displays.
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All of the data supporting this manuscript are available in the form of Source Data files and the supplementary material. Source data are provided with this paper.
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Acknowledgements
This research was supported by a National Research Foundation of Korea grant, financed by the Korean government’s Ministry of Science, ICT & Future Planning (RS-2025-00560490) and the Pioneer Research Center Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea, financed by the Ministry of Science, ICT & Future Planning (RS-2022-NR067540). This work was also supported by the Nano & Material Technology Development Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea financed by the Ministry of Science and ICT (RS-2024-00416938). D.Z., T.Z. and Y.G. acknowledge support for MXene synthesis and chemical modification from US National Science Foundation grants DMR-2041050 and CHE-2318105 (M-STAR CCI).
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Contributions
H.Z. and T.-W.L. conceived the overall concept. T.-W.L. supervised the project. H.Z., H.-W.K. and S.J.H. initiated the proof-of-concept experiments of fully stretchable OLED devices. H.Z. and H.-W.K. designed and optimized the fully stretchable OLEDs and fabricated devices for analysis and demonstrations. H.Z. and H.-W.K. conducted most of the data analysis and interpretation. D.Z. and T.Z. synthesized MXene and prepared its colloidal solutions, D.Z. performed in situ UV–Vis absorption spectroscopy and T.Z. conducted temperature-dependent resistance measurements under the supervision of Y.G. W.J.J. fabricated the rigid OLEDs. B.H. conceived the magneto-PL experiments and H.Y. performed the corresponding measurements. Y.T. conducted temperature-dependent streak camera measurements under the guidance of C.A. J.H. performed MD simulations. S.C. carried out FIM and spectrally resolved FIM measurements and analysis under the supervision of J.C.K. J.S.K. contributed to transient electroluminescence measurements. D.-H.K. assisted with PLQY and ellipsometry data acquisition. H.J.Y. performed in situ UV photoelectron spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy measurements. J.P. and E.Y. carried out TRPL data acquisition and K.Y.J. conducted further streak camera measurement. A.K.H. synthesized Crown-CPE under the supervision of H.Y.W. M.-J.S., Y.A. and H. Yang performed grazing incidence X-ray diffraction measurements. H.C. and Q.Z. assisted with UV–Vis and PL measurements. C.-Y.P. performed contact-angle measurements. K.-N.K. contributed to the design of the stretching jig. L.A. synthesized 2PTPS under the guidance of Y.-H.K. H.Z. visualized the data and drafted the initial manuscript and other related documents. T.-W.L. provided substantial revisions. H.-W.K., D.Z. and Y.G. reviewed and edited the manuscript.
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Extended data figures and tables
Extended Data Fig. 1 Photophysics of TADF and phosphorescence under stretching.
a, Schematic illustration of the donor–acceptor structure in the small-molecule TADF molecules. b,c, TRPL and PL spectra of 4CzIPN at a concentration of 1.5 mg ml−1 in a 2 mg ml−1 PU matrix, both before and after application of 50% tensile strain. d, Schematic illustration of SOC facilitated by the heavy-metal atom in the phosphorescent materials. e,f, TRPL and PL spectra of Ir(ppy)2acac at a concentration of 1.5 mg ml−1 in a 2 mg ml−1 PU matrix, measured before and after application of 50% tensile strain.
Extended Data Fig. 2 Effect of elastomer content on the morphology of the stretchable ExciPh layer.
Atomic force microscopy of ExciPh, with varying loadings of SEBS (top images) and PU (bottom images).
Extended Data Fig. 3 Effect of mechanical stretching on the exciplex energy transfer.
a,b, TRPL spectra of ExciPh films under increasing tensile strain (0–100%). ExciPh layers were transferred onto quartz substrates, strained and encapsulated with a glass lid to prevent oxygen quenching. c, Corresponding PL lifetimes and estimated donor–acceptor distance (rDA) in terms of tensile strain (see details in Supplementary Text 6 for rDA calculation).
Extended Data Fig. 4 Mechanical stretchability of the stretchable ExciPh layer.
a, Digital photograph of SGraHIL/ExciPh on the substrate applied with 200% tensile strain. The highly reflective surface of the stretchable ExciPh indicates that no microcracks formed during stretching. b, Digital photograph of SGraHIL/ExciPh under 200% strain under UV irradiation. Initial length was 10 mm. c, Optical microscopic images of in situ stretching test on SGraHIL/ExciPh without using an encapsulation layer on top.
Extended Data Fig. 5 Characteristics of OLEDs using a stretchable ExciPh layer.
a, Schematic of the high-efficiency OLED that uses SGraHIL and ExciPh. Device structure: ITO (70 nm)/SGraHIL (82 nm)/ExciPh with or without PU (50 nm)/TPBi (45 nm)/LiF (2 nm)/Al (100 nm). b–e, Electroluminescent characteristics of this OLED.
Extended Data Fig. 6 Electroluminescent performance of phosphorescent OLEDs using exciplex-free cohosts.
a, Device schematic of phosphorescent OLEDs comprising exciplex-free cohosts of Ir(ppy)2acac:TCTA:2PTPS (0.9:5:5 w/w/w). Device structure: ITO (70 nm)/SGraHIL (82 nm)/Ir(ppy)2acac:exciplex-free cohosts with or without PU (50 nm)/TPBi (45 nm)/LiF (2 nm)/Al (100 nm). b, PL spectra of TCTA, 2PTPS and the 2PTPS:TCTA blend, confirming the absence of exciplex formation. c–f, Electroluminescent characteristics of the OLEDs based on exciplex-free cohost systems.
Extended Data Fig. 7 Characteristics of phosphorescent OLEDs using a single host.
a, Device schematic of phosphorescent OLEDs comprising a single host of Ir(ppy)2acac:CPB (0.9:10 w/w). Device structure: ITO (70 nm)/SGraHIL (82 nm)/Ir(ppy)2acac:single host with or without PU (50 nm)/TPBi (45 nm)/LiF (2 nm)/Al (100 nm). b, PL spectra of pristine CBP and 0.9 mg ml−1 Ir(ppy)2acac blended with varying CBP concentrations. c–f, Electroluminescent characteristics of the OLEDs based on exciplex-free cohost systems.
Extended Data Fig. 8 Effect of mechanical stretching of the stretchable ExciPh layer on charge-carrier recombination in OLEDs.
a, Schematic of OLED devices that use orange and green ExciPh layers. The orange ExciPh layer was deposited directly on the SGraHIL layer. The green ExciPh was deposited on an OTMS-treated wafer and transferred onto a PDMS stamp. Then the green ExciPh on the stamp was delicately pressed onto the orange ExciPh while retaining tensile strain. b,c, Current density–voltage and luminance–voltage curves of OLEDs with green ExciPh under different tensile strains. d–f, Evolution of electroluminescent spectrum with 0%, 25% and 50% tensile strain applied to the green ExciPh. Horizontal profiles on the top represent the evolution of electroluminescent intensity at 603 nm, which corresponds to the peak position of orange ExciPh. Vertical profiles on the right-hand y axes: electroluminescent spectrum at 18 V. g, Schematic of recombination zone shift to the green ExciPh region owing to impeded electron injection under stretching. Green ExciPh: stretchable exciplex-assisted phosphorescent layer using Ir(ppy)2acac as the dopant. Orange ExciPh: stretchable exciplex-assisted phosphorescent layer using Ir(bt)2acac as the dopant.
Extended Data Fig. 9 Characterization of the mechanical stability of MCSEs.
a,b, Static stretching tests (ε = 100%) and cyclic stretching tests (ε = 40%) of the AgNW stretchable electrode and MCSEs before and after welding. c, Atomic force microscopy topography of MCSE before, during and after tensile strain (ε = 40%).
Extended Data Fig. 10 Origin of WF gradient in SGraHIL.
a, Schematic illustration of SGraHIL. b, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy depth profile of SGraHIL. P1 to P4 represent four positions with 0, 80, 120 and 200 s of sputter etching time, respectively. c, UV photoelectron spectroscopy measurement of SGraHIL at positions P1, P2, P3 and P4. d, Schematic illustration of conventional SHIL. e, UV photoelectron spectroscopy measurement of positions P1, P2 and P3. f, UV photoelectron spectroscopy measurement of SHIL at positions P1, P2 and P3. g, Correlation of WF and F1s atomic concentration profiles in terms of etching time (data extracted from b and c). h, Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry 3D mapping for [CH]−, [S]−, [SO3]− and [CF]− ions in SHIL and SGraHIL. SHIL, stretchable hole injection layer composed of PEDOT:PSS AI 4083 and Triton X-100; SGraHIL, stretchable gradient hole injection layer composed of PEDOT:PSS, PFSA and Triton X-100.
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Zhou, H., Kim, HW., Han, S.J. et al. Exciplex-enabled high-efficiency, fully stretchable OLEDs. Nature 649, 604–611 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09904-0
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09904-0
