Fig. 4: Retrieval capabilities of TITAN.

a, Slide retrieval results on rare cancer retrieval tasks assessed with Accuracy@K, with K = {1, 3, 5}. Rare-Cancer (internal rare cancer cohort) consists of TCGA, EBRAINS and the MGB internal cohort, with 43 rare and 143 common cancer types for a total of 186 classes. Rare-Cancer-Public (public rare cancer cohort) consists of TCGA and EBRAINS only, with 29 rare and 98 common cancer types for a total of 127 classes. Rare-Cancer-External consists of 12 rare cancer types for the ovary and soft tissue, curated at Kanagawa Cancer Center Hospital, Japan. b, Example of rare cancer retrieval on Rare-Cancer with the query slide and four representative retrieved slides. The number indicates the cosine similarity between the query and the retrieved slide. Additional examples of rare cancer retrieval are available in Extended Data Fig. 8. c, Slide retrieval results on five subtyping tasks. Mean represents the average performance across three shots. d, Report-to-slide and slide-to-report cross-modal retrieval performance assessed with Recall@K, with K = {1, 3, 5, 10} on TCGA cohort of 10,108 pairs of WSIs and reports for TITAN and PRISM. Mean represents the average performance across four shots. All error bars represent s.d. based on bootstrapping (n = 1,000). Statistical significance was assessed using TITAN by the fitting of a generalized linear mixed-effects model and a two-sided Wald z test on the fitted model. Significance shown with respect to TITAN. P values for nonsignificant results are shown. **P ≤ 0.01, ***P ≤ 0.001, ****P ≤ 0.0001.