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Comparing methods for preparing slippery liquid-like polydimethylsiloxane coatings

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Abstract

Slippery covalently attached liquid surfaces (SCALS, also called quasi-liquid surfaces, liquid-like surfaces and slippery omniphobic covalently attached surfaces) have recently emerged as a new family of materials with many useful properties such as droplet-shedding, deicing and antifouling. They can also serve as model systems in studies of wetting, evaporation and self-assembly phenomena. They are made of nano-thin layers of polymers or oligomers that are liquid at ambient temperature and covalently attached to a smooth substrate. Here we lay out procedures for preparation of the most common SCALS system: polydimethylsiloxane bound to silica surfaces via silane chemistry. The apparent simplicity of these layers and their methods of preparation is misleading, and obtaining reproducible results requires careful control of the reaction parameters. The exact details of the synthetic methods for SCALS determine the observed results; it is therefore essential to report both the synthetic detail and the characterization results to improve reproducibility and to advance understanding of the field. Here a range of synthetic methods used in the literature were reproduced in three different laboratories across the world, their comparative advantages and disadvantages discussed and the resulting SCALS characterized. For each synthetic method, the key parameters that contribute to their performance and ease of reproducibility were identified and optimized.

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Fig. 1: Overview of key physicochemical properties of PDMS SCALS.
Fig. 2: Example of data collected from a CAH measurement on a SCALS, performed according to the procedure described here.
Fig. 3: The impact of key parameters on SCALS prepared via Golovin’s method36,58, alongside a schematic of the reaction.
Fig. 4: The method of Zhang et al. illustrated schematically, alongside key results.
Fig. 5: Effect of substrate position and washing step on thickness of PDMS SCALS produced via the Zhang method.
Fig. 6: The method of Flagg and McCarthy illustrated schematically, alongside key results.
Fig. 7: The method of Liu et al. represented in a schematic diagram, alongside key results.
Fig. 8: The method of Wang and McCarthy illustrated schematically, alongside key results.
Fig. 9: Results of the modified Wang method described here.
Fig. 10: The method of Krumpfer and McCarthy illustrated schematically, alongside key results.

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Acknowledgements

C.N. and I.J.G. acknowledge funding from the Australian Research Council (nos. FT180100214, DP230100555) and AINSE Ltd. (ECRG), and K. Jarvis for access to the plasma polymerization chamber. C.N., I.J.G., K.G. and B.K. acknowledge funding from the USyd-U of T Ignition grant scheme. G.M., G.G.W. and H.B.-Z. acknowledge funding from the UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC grants EP/V049348/1 and EP/T025158/1).

G.M. and G.G.W. would like to acknowledge D. Vollmer and H. Jürgen Butt for discussions regarding the Wang method and S. Armstrong for valuable discussions regarding liquid-like coating procedures. I.J.G. and C.N. thank H. Jürgen Butt and J. Liu for assistance in replicating their method; K. Koynov, X. Zhou and L. Jian for valuable discussions regarding liquid-like coating procedures; T. McCarthy for pointers on the Flagg method; and S. Prescott and M. Coney for assistance with adoption of the Flagg method.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

    Isaac J. Gresham, Jae Hyung Cho & Chiara Neto

  2. Sydney Nano Institute, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

    Isaac J. Gresham, Jae Hyung Cho & Chiara Neto

  3. Wetting, Interfacial Science and Engineering Laboratory, Institute for Multiscale Thermofluids, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

    Hernán Barrio-Zhang, Gary G. Wells & Glen McHale

  4. Synthesis Research, Central Research Institute, KCC Corporation, Giheung-gu, Yongin-si, Republic of Korea

    Jae Hyung Cho

  5. Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, The University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

    Behrooz Khatir & Kevin Golovin

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Contributions

H.B.-Z.: investigation, methodology, writing—original draft. J.H.C.: investigation, methodology, validation. I.J.G.: conceptualization, investigation, methodology, validation, visualization, writing—original draft (lead). K.G.: funding acquisition, methodology, supervision, writing—review and editing. B.K.: investigation, methodology, visualization, writing—original draft. G.M.: funding acquisition, methodology, supervision, writing—review and editing. C.N.: funding acquisition, methodology, supervision, writing—review and editing (lead). G.G.W.: funding acquisition, supervision, methodology, writing—review and editing.

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Correspondence to Chiara Neto.

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Gresham, I.J., Barrio-Zhang, H., Cho, J.H. et al. Comparing methods for preparing slippery liquid-like polydimethylsiloxane coatings. Nat Protoc (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41596-025-01253-6

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