Introduction

In recent decades, in addition to substance addictions, research into behavioral addictions has increased significantly1. Binge-watching (BW), which describes watching multiple episodes of a TV series back-to-back, displays features similar to behavioral addictions, suggesting that it has the potential to become addictive2. Measuring problematic series watching is based on the biopsychosocial components model of addiction3,4, which includes six components: salience (how important TV watching is to an individual's thoughts), mood modification (TV watching as a way to cope with negative emotions), tolerance (the need to watch more TV to achieve the same feeling of arousal or escape ), withdrawal (experience of negative emotions and cognitive distortions when TV watching is interrupted, leading to symptoms such as stress, insomnia, and physical side effects), conflict (struggle with increasing concerns over excessive TV watching, leading to interference with individuals’ daily functioning, social relationships, and mental wellbeing), and relapse (tendency to revert to previous patterns of TV watching after a failed attempt to control or interrupt the dysfunctional cycle)3,5.

BW has become a common viewing practice in recent years6. Online streaming platforms make it possible to watch series at convenience, without depending on traditional television schedules7,8. BW is usually related to entertainment, but its potential long-term negative health and social consequences have raised concerns. The consequences include mental health problems, addiction-like symptoms, guilt, and disregard of responsibilities6,9,10,11.

Korean dramas fans’ binge-watching

Korean dramas (K-dramas) have been a significant part of the Korean Wave, known as Hallyu, which refers to the global spread of Korean culture, entertainment, and pop culture12,13. K-dramas are known for their unique storylines, well-developed characters, and high production values14. The worldwide audience of K-dramas is vast and diverse. K-dramas first gained popularity in the late 1990s in countries in the Asian region as China, Japan, and Southeast Asia13,15. Since then, the popularity of K-dramas has spread exponentially beyond Asia, with a growing global audience that consumes these shows on streaming services like Netflix16,17. The COVID-19 pandemic contributed to a rise in the number of new viewers of K-dramas and an increase in the frequency of K-dramas being watched18.

K-dramas are not long-winded, and episodes typically range from 16 to 24 only14. K-drama fans often binge-watch an entire series over a short period. If a K-drama is captivating and provides a means of escape and relaxation, fans are capable of watching up to 10 episodes a day because of the strong emotional connection it creates19. Qualitative research showed that most participants watched K-dramas for two to three days a week, and if they did not watch it daily, they tended to indulge in longer binge-watching sessions, which could last entire days and can be quite addictive20.

Many international fans express their “passion” or “addiction” to K-dramas despite reporting that they were unaware of South Korea and its location before watching their first K-drama21. Fans often experience a sense of sadness when completing a K-drama. According to K-drama forums, the most effective way to overcome the feeling of sadness that comes with finishing a K-drama is to seek out another K-drama to watch22. A study conducted on a sample of 57 Indonesian adolescent members of the Korean Fans community ‘Pontianak’ revealed that 67% (n = 38) of them are classified as addicted to watching K-drama Series14.

The frequency of K-drama watching among these Indonesian adolescents directly correlates with the speed of influence on an individual's behavior, so the more often individuals watched the shows, the faster their behavior was affected. Addiction to K-drama is related to imitative behavior, especially in adolescents who identify with the characteristics of their role models14. The first study conducted with Israeli K-drama audiences sought to distinguish between consumers and fans. Respondents were asked to rate their levels of addiction to K-dramas on a scale of 1 (Not at all) to 7 (Definitely yes). Sixty percent ranked their level of addition 7, and 28% between 4 and 6, with a mean score of 6.22 (SD = 1.31)23.

The cultural norms and rituals surrounding alcohol consumption in K-Dramas

South Korea has one of the highest rates of monthly alcohol consumption, high-risk drinking, and alcohol-related problems24. Alcohol consumption holds significant cultural and social significance in South Korea. The social lives of adults are often centered around and encouraged by the consumption of alcohol25. In Korean society, the collective consumption of alcohol is used as a means to build bonds and maintain a sense of community, within family, with friends, and with colleagues26. One of the most popular alcoholic beverages in Korea is Soju. Soju is a traditional liquor of Korea, is aged in oak barrels after distillation from steamed rice or mixed grains and Nuruk (a traditional Korean fermentation starter essential for producing alcoholic beverages)27. Soju is very available in south Korea and has a relatively low price. Soju has various drinks with different presents of alcohol; the popular range from 21 to 45% alcohol28. Soju, the Korean-distilled alcoholic beverage, is not traditionally popular in other countries such as Indonesia or Israel, where the beverage is not typical or widely recognized. Fans of K- dramas may experience their initial exposure to Soju through scenes depicting drinking in these dramas. Global viewers of Korean dramas consume messages about the cultural norms regarding Soju and alcohol consumption, as the portrayal of alcohol consumption is ubiquitous, with a reference to alcohol approximately every 12 min of programming24. Media portrayal of behaviors, particularly alcohol consumption, increases the likelihood of individuals (mostly adolescents) engaging in these behaviors29.

K-dramas global audiences from Indonesia and Israel

K-dramas have gained a global following30. In addition to their entertainment value, K-dramas have also a significant cultural effect and help promote tourism to South Korea31,32.

The Korean wave and especially K-dramas are highly popular in Indonesia and have had massive effects33. Audiences in Indonesia, a conservative country where Islam is the principal religion, found cultural closeness with values shown in K-drama, such as family values and respect for elders33,34. According to a survey conducted in 2019, 49% of respondents reported that K-dramas are highly popular in Indonesia, and 39% considered them to be quite popular35. Since the outbreak of COVID-19, many new viewers in Indonesia have opted to watch K-dramas36.

In Israeli society, Korean culture is perceived as entirely foreign, and the Israeli public has limited knowledge about Korea. The Korean wave in Israel is a fan-driven phenomenon, with a relatively small group of fans acting as cultural agents that construct localized “Korean-ness”, although 95% of the fans have never been to Korea and have experienced Korean culture mostly through the K-dramas23. Israeli K-drama fans launched many online webpages, including websites for downloading K-dramas, translating them into Hebrew by volunteers, uploading them illegally, distributing them, and discussing topics related to them23,37. In 2021, as Netflix gained popularity in Israel, mostly during the COVID-19 period, many Israelis watched the internationally popular Squid Game K-drama. Nevertheless, the K-drama genre remains popular with only a small group of Israeli fans.

Objectives

Because K-drama has unique characteristics, and little is known about BW and addiction to K-drama by global adult fans from different cultures, and little is known about whether the alcohol consumption messages in K-drama series are associated with alcohol use of global audiences, the objectives of the present study were: (a) Examine problematic K-drama series watching by Israeli and Indonesian K-drama audiences; (b) Examine alcohol consumption by Israeli and Indonesian K-drama audiences; (c) Examine the association between problematic series watching and alcohol consumption; and (d) Predict problematic K-drama series watching based on the characteristics of Israeli and Indonesian K-drama audiences.

Methods

Participants

The study included 638 K-drama fans aged 18 and older, of whom 383 (60%) were from Indonesia and 255 (40%) from Israel; 88% (N = 587) of the total sample were women. The characteristics of the fan sample are presented in Table 1.

Table 1 Demographic characteristics by group (Israel/Indonesia) (N = 638).
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As seen in Table 1, the Israeli participants were older than the Indonesian ones. Israeli participants were mostly Jewish, whereas Indonesian participants were mostly Muslim. Most participants were married (46%) or single (38%), and the percentage of married participants was higher in the Indonesian sample, whereas the percentage of divorced or separated participants was higher in the Israeli sample. About half the participants had children. Indonesian participants were more educated than the Israeli ones, but employment rates were higher in the Israeli sample.

Research tools

The following questionnaires were used in this study:

Socio-demographic questionnaire

Participants completed a socio-demographic questionnaire that contained the following details: gender, age, marital status, religiosity, level of education, and employment.

K-drama viewing patterns and background questionnaire

The K-drama viewing patterns and background questionnaire were developed for the present study and included 12 questions. For example: At what age did you first watch a K-drama? How long have you been watching K-drama? (Less than a year; 1–2 years; 3–5 years; 6–10 years; more than 11 years). How would you define yourself in relation to K-dramas? (Die-hard fan; Great fan; I like it somewhat; I'm not a fan; I don’t like it at all). Do members of your family or friends consider you to be addicted to K-drama? (Yes/No). Have you ever been to South Korea? (Yes/No).

Problematic K-drama Series Watching scale

The problematic Series Watching scale (PSWS)5 is a 6-item scale that was created based on the biopsychosocial components model of addiction3,4. The six items indicate problematic series watching in the preceding year. For the present study, we replaced the word “series” in all items with the term “K-drama.” Each item was scored on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Never) to 5 (Always). Total scores were obtained by summing up individual items scores (a higher score indicates problematic watching). Cronbach’s alpha reliability of the questionnaire was α = 0.78.

Alcohol consumption assessment

As K-drama fans may have their first encounter with Soju (the Korean distilled alcoholic beverage) through scenes in K-dramas, the first question was about drinking Soju: ‘Have you ever drunk Soju (Korean alcohol)?’ with response options of yes or no.

The other questions are based on parts 1 (screening) and 2 (brief assessment) of the screening tool TAPS from NIDA Clinical Trials Network38. The questions include drinking in the past 12 months: In the PAST 12 MONTHS, how often have you had 5 or more drinks (for males)/4 or more drinks (for females) containing alcohol in one day? And drinking in the past 3 months: In the PAST 3 MONTHS, did you have a drink containing alcohol? with response options of yes or no. If “Yes”, answer the following questions: In the PAST 3 MONTHS, did you have 4 or more drinks (for females)/5 or more drinks containing alcohol in a day? with response options of yes or no. The participants were explicitly informed that one standard drink is about 1 small glass of wine (5 oz), 1 beer (12 oz), or 1 single shot of liquor.

Procedure

The study was approved by the ethical standards of the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the author's institution in Israel and Indonesia. All participants were informed of the study objectives, were guaranteed anonymity, and provided their informed consent before completing the questionnaire. The questionnaire was translated from English into Hebrew for audiences in Israel and into Indonesian for audiences in Indonesia using the standard practice of back translation to ensure accuracy and consistency. Any discrepancies were resolved to ensure that the translated questionnaires accurately reflected the original content.

The questionnaires were distributed online to a non-probability convenience sampling, involving participants who are easily accessible and willing to participate, through social media in Israel and Indonesia. In Israel, the K-drama phenomenon is not popular with the entire society, therefore the questionnaires were distributed on certain web pages and Facebook groups of K-drama audiences and fans. In Indonesia, the online questionnaire was distributed through Facebook, Instagram, a K-drama fan group on Twitter, WhatsApp, and other social media. The sample size calculation was not based on statistical power analysis; instead, it was determined by the availability and willingness of participants within the specific social media groups targeted in both countries.

Statistical analysis

Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (IBM SPSS) ver. 28. We described demographic and watching background pattern variables by means and standard deviations for continuous variables, and frequencies and percentages for categorical ones, by group (country). We examined group differences with t-tests, Chi-square tests, and Z ratios for the significance of the difference between independent proportions. We conducted a principal component factor analysis with oblique rotation for study variables, using an eigenvalue > 1. We analyzed the associations between the demographic and watching background pattern variables and problematic K-drama series watching using Spearman correlations. Of the alcohol consumption the dependent variables were : drinking Soju, drinking in past 3 months, and binge drinking in the past 12 months, all defined dichotomously (1-yes, 0-no). Pearson correlations were calculated between the problematic K-drama series watching and the alcohol consumption variables. We calculated multiple linear regressions for problematic K-drama series watching as the dependent variable.

Ethical approval and informed consent to participate

The study was approved by the ethical standards of the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the author's institution in Israel and Indonesia, number of approval from Ariel University: AU-SOC-HBN-20230103. All participants were informed of the study objectives, were guaranteed anonymity, and provided their informed consent before completing the survey.

All methods were performed in accordance with the ethical standards as laid down in the Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Results

The characteristics and patterns of K-drama watching by fans in Israel and Indonesia are presented in Table 2.

Table 2 K-drama watching background patterns by group (Israel/Indonesia) (N = 638).
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Israeli participants were older than the Indonesian participants when starting to watch K-dramas. Indonesian participants have been watching K-dramas longer than their Israeli counterparts. Most participants were members of a K-drama social network, Israeli participants to a greater extent. Israeli participants defined themselves as greater fans than did Indonesian participants, and a greater percentage of Israelis were perceived by family and friends as being addicted to K-drama. Israeli participants spent more hours per week watching K-drama and watched more K-dramas per month than did Indonesian participants. Fewer Israeli participants had visited South Korea than did Indonesian participants, and whereas about half the Israeli participants planned to visit South Korea, most Indonesian participants had no such plans.

Problematic K-drama series watching

We defined problematic K-drama series watching as having a score of at least 2 (Always, Often) on each of the six items of the scale. Fifteen percent (N = 95) of the sample were identified as displaying problematic K-drama series watching. Significant differences were found between the Israeli 54 (21.2%) and Indonesian 41 (10.7%) participants (Z = 3.64, p < 0.001).

The associations between the demographic variables, watching background patterns, and problematic K-drama series watching are shown in Table 3.

Table 3 Spearman correlations between problematic K-drama series watching and the demographic and background pattern variables (N = 638).
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Several significant associations were found for the whole sample. Unmarried participants and participants with lower education were more likely to display problematic K-drama series watching. Members of K-drama-related social networks, those who were fans of K-drama, those seen as addicted by family and friends, those who spent more weekly hours watching K-drama and watched more K-dramas per month, and those who increased their watching during COVID-19 were more likely to engage in problematic K-drama series watching.

Some significant associations were found in the Israeli sample. Younger participants were more involved with problematic K-drama series watching. Participants who were fans of K-drama were regarded to be addicts by family and friends, who spent more weekly hours watching K-drama, and watched more K-dramas per month were more likely to engage in problematic K-drama series watching.

In the Indonesian sample, participants who started watching K-drama at a younger age, who were members of a K-drama-related social network, were fans of K-drama, and were regarded as addicts by family and friends, those who spent more weekly hours watching K-drama, watched more K-dramas per month, and increased their watching habits during COVID-19 were more likely to engage in problematic K-drama series watching.

Alcohol consumption

A total of 414 participants completed the alcohol consumption questionnaire (208 Israelis − 81.6% of the Israeli sample, and 206 Indonesian − 53.8% of the Indonesian sample) Table 4 presents the reported patterns of alcohol consumption by group. A greater percentage of the Israeli participants have reported ever drinking Soju, and drinking in the past 3 months, than Indonesian participants. No differences were found for binge drinking in the past 3 months. Binge drinking in the past 12 months was more frequent among Israeli participants than among Indonesian participants.

Table 4 Alcohol consumption by grp (N = 414).
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Of the alcohol consumption characteristics (n = 414) three served as dependent variables: drinking Soju, drinking in past 3 months, and binge drinking in the past 12 months.

Pearson correlations were calculated between Problematic K-drama series watching and the alcohol consumption variables. Significant associations were found between participants who were higher on problematic K-drama series watching were more likely to be involved with drinking Soju (r = 0.16, p < 0.003), drinking in past 3 months (r = 0.20, p < 0.001), and Binge drinking in the past 12 months (r = 0.27, p < 0.001). One association was found significant for the Israeli sample, as participants who were higher on problematic K-drama series watching, were more likely to have been involved with binge drinking in the past 12 months (r = 0.24, p < 0.003).

Spearman correlations between background variables and the alcohol consumption variables found several significant associations. Participants who were more likely to have drunk Soju were those who visited South Korea (r = 0.35, p < 0.001), were more fans of K-drama (r = 0.21, p < 0.001), are regarded as addicts by family/friends (r = 0.25, p < 0.001), and watch more K-dramas per month (r = 0.15, p < 0.002). Participants who were more likely to have been involved with binge drinking in the past 12 months were those who visited South Korea (r = 0.18, p < 0.001), who are regarded as addicts by family/friends (r = 0.20, p < 0.001). Few associations were found for the Israeli sample. Participants who visited South Korea (r = 0.34, p < 0.001), and who have been watching K-drama longer (r = 0.25, p < 0.001), were more likely to have drunk Soju. Few associations were found for the Indonesian sample as well. Participants who visited South Korea were more likely to have drunk Soju (r = 0.21, p < 0.002) and were more likely to have been involved with binge drinking in the past 12 months (r = 0.24, p < 0.001).

We conducted multiple linear regressions to predict problem K-drama series watching based on the characteristics of Israeli and Indonesian K-drama audiences (Table 5).

Table 5 Multiple linear regression for problematic K-drama series watching with socio-demographic and K-drama watching characteristics (N = 638).
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Results show that socio-demographic and K-drama watching characteristics explained about 28% of the variance in problematic K-drama series watching. Israeli participants and younger participants scored higher on problematic K-drama series watching than did Indonesian and older participants, respectively. Describing oneself as a fan of K-drama and being a member of a K-drama social network were associated with more problematic K-drama series watching. A higher number of weekly hours devoted to watching K-drama and a greater number of dramas being watched per month were associated with more problematic K-drama series watching.

Discussion

The present study aimed to evaluate the characteristics and examine the problematic series watching and the associations with alcohol consumption of global K-drama audiences in two countries: Israel and Indonesia.

Fifteen percent of the total sample of the study was identified as displaying problematic K-drama series watching. Many respondents reported being perceived by family or friends as addicted to K-drama. Compared to other addictive behaviors, this is considered a high rate. Series watching is called problematic behavior rather than addiction because there is no solid evidence regarding its negative health-related consequences5. Although BW is usually related to entertainment, this phenomenon has recently generated concerns regarding its potentially negative long-term health and social consequences6,9,10,11. Therefore, more research should be conducted given the association between K-drama and negative consequences in global audiences.

The personal motives of viewers to engage in BW have been widely researched7, but the type and genre of those series and their characteristics that can contribute to increased binge-watching have barely been studied. In other behavior addictions, for example, gambling, there are studies indicating that some forms of gambling are regarded as more engaging than other types, while other studies show that the type of gambling is irrelevant in predicting its severity39,40. K-dramas are a unique type of series with unique characteristics that lure audiences, such as unique storylines, well-developed characters, high production values14, attractive appearances of the actors and actresses30,41, and the short-winded structure of the episodes that range between 16 and 24 min14, making it possible for fans to binge-watch an entire series in a short period19. K-dramas end mostly after one season. This makes binge-watching convenient because the viewer need not wait in anticipation for the next season. It is known that K-dramas are filmed as the series are broadcast so that the plot lines and emphases on various characters can change according to audience feedback and ratings42. More studies should be conducted on the association between BW and the unique characteristics of K-drama.

Another finding concerns the proportion of Israeli fans identified as engaging in problematic K-drama series watching compared to Indonesian fans. The difference in the proportion of problematic watching may have to do with the fact that Indonesians watched K-drama as part of their routine and most of the participants were not die-hard fans, as were the Israelis. The Israelis who became fans of K-drama, belong to a unique group, and many of them were members of online K-drama fan groups23,43. These websites are almost unknown to the general public and come up only in explicit searches of the web. It appears that those who make an effort to find such sites and become members are those who are the hard core of the audience that is highly interested in K-dramas.

Although Soju, the Korean-distilled alcoholic beverage, is not recognized and is not easy to get in other countries, more then third of the participants in this study reported drinking Soju.

In the current study, significant associations were found between participants who were higher on problematic K-drama series watching were more likely to be involved with drinking alcohol. As media portrayal of alcohol consumption, increases the likelihood of mostly adolescents engaging in these behaviors29.It seems that it is also increasing alcohol consumption among adult global fans of Korean dramas.

Fans of K- dramas may experience their initial exposure to Soju, the Korean-distilled popular alcoholic beverage, through scenes depicting drinking in these dramas. As Soju is not traditionally popular in other countries such as Indonesia or Israel, it explains why participants who were more likely to have drunk Soju were those who visited South Korea.

A substantial number of participants reported having visited Korea, with significant differences between the Israelis and Indonesians (27.5% of the Israelis and 8% of Indonesians). Many more indicated their plan to visit Korea in the future (55% of the Israelis and 16% of Indonesians). Israeli fans appear to have wanted to experience Korean culture in reality, not only through K-drama. These findings coincide with other studies claiming that K-dramas help promote tourism in South Korea31,32, but differ from a previous study published in Israel in 2015, which found that 95% of the fans have never been to Korea and experienced Korean culture mostly through K-dramas23. Israeli fans appear to be more enthusiastic and have greater curiosity about Korean culture, perceiving it as different from Israeli culture considers more Western culture in the belief that the only way to experience Korean culture is to travel to Korea. The low interest in visiting Korea by Indonesians could be explained by them sharing a cultural closeness with values shown in K-drama33,34 and because they can experience the Korean culture as part of the Korean wave in Indonesia33.

Limitations

The present study has several limitations. First, it focused on adult audiences, from two different cultures, therefore findings cannot be generalized to global K-drama audiences. It seems that every country has its own characteristics, and future research should be conducted with audiences of K-dramas in different countries, including a focus on adolescent fans. Second, the present study focused on the viewing habits and problematic series watching but did not deal with additional factors that can influence viewing habits, such as the unique characteristics of K-dramas, personal and social motivations, and the availability of other types of series.

Conclusions

The study highlights the importance of healthcare professionals being aware of problematic binge-watching behavior, as series binge-watching may entail potentially negative adverse effects on physical and mental health as well as social consequences that may affect overall well-being.

The study identifies an association between problematic K-drama series watching and increased alcohol consumption. This suggests that media content, including cultural nuances portrayed in K-dramas, can influence viewers’ behaviors.

In summary, health professionals and policymakers should collaborate to address the potential negative consequences of binge-watching and recognize the impact of cultural influences on media consumption patterns, including alcohol-related messages. By doing so, they can promote healthier behaviors and enhance public well-being.