Introduction

Driven by the rapid advancement of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), the digital wave is profoundly restructuring the fundamental logic of organizational operations and the value-creation model. As a product of the digital age, e-leadership reshapes the form and effectiveness of leadership behaviors through technological media1. Although existing research has disclosed the positive impacts of traditional leadership styles, such as transformational leadership and charismatic leadership, on employee creativity2,3the uniqueness of E-leadership lies in its deep integration with digital technologies. It breaks through the temporal and spatial boundaries of traditional leadership behaviors and gives rise to a new model-the SEC model (six E-competence model)4. This model identifies six dimensions of E-leadership: E-communication, E-social, E-change, E-team, E-technology, and E-trust. Each dimension is associated with specific measurement indicators, which significantly enhances the operationalization of the E-Leadership concept in empirical research4. E-communication centers on the leader’s capacity to communicate precisely and interactively within a digital environment. This involves efficient information transmission and proficient use of digital tools. E-social highlights the role of technology in coordinating interpersonal relationships. Its effectiveness can be evaluated through social network analysis, which helps to understand how technology-mediated interactions impact team cohesion and communication flow. E-change is centered around technology-driven organizational change. The measurement indicators include the soundness of change strategies and the success of implementation effects, reflecting how well leaders can navigate the organization through digital-enabled transformations. E-team focuses on the governance of virtual teams. It pays close attention to members’ enthusiasm levels and the degree of task completion, aiming to ensure high-performance outputs in a remote-working context. E-technology necessitates that leaders master digital technologies. Their proficiency levels can be evaluated through technical ability tests, simulations, and real-world application scenarios. E-trust is about establishing and maintaining trust in a virtual environment. It assesses the effectiveness of leaders in fostering an environment where team members feel safe, respected, and willing to collaborate, often through methods such as trust-related surveys and direct observations of team interactions.

The advent of digital work environments has made it imperative to reconceptualize traditional leadership paradigms, especially when differentiating E-leadership (technology-mediated leadership) from well-established positive leadership frameworks like transformational leadership. Although both constructs share the normative goal of improving organizational outcomes, there are fundamental disparities in their operational mechanisms, contextual dependencies, and behavioral repertoires. Transformational leadership, which is based on Bass’s four-component model (idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration), predominantly functions through interpersonal influence channels5. Its effectiveness hinges on physical co-presence and synchronous emotional contagion processes6. Conversely, E-leadership demands technology-mediated interaction architectures, compelling leaders to be proficient in digital communication protocols and asynchronous coordination mechanisms7.

However, does this technology-enabled leadership style necessarily foster employee creativity? Are its mechanisms of action restricted by individual psychological states and cognitive tendencies? Existing research has yet to offer a systematic response, which serves as the core impetus for this study. Currently, research on e-leadership primarily centers around concept definition8competency model construction4or the direct influence on team innovation9. Nevertheless, there is a dearth of in-depth exploration into the mediating and moderating mechanisms through which it impacts employee creativity. Notably, while E-leadership enhances efficiency, it may also induce emotional exhaustion among employees. This state, stemming from the continuous depletion of psychological resources, may counteract the positive effects of technological empowerment10. Furthermore, the Regulatory Focus Theory posits those individual disparities in goal-pursuit (promotion-focused on reaping rewards versus prevention-focused on avoiding risks) may significantly influence their reactions to stress11. Regrettably, the existing literature has not integrated these two factors into the analytical framework of E-leadership and creativity, resulting in a theoretical lacuna in the interpretation of this causal chain.

Against this backdrop, the present study posits the following research inquiries: How does E-leadership exert an impact on employee creativity via the mediating pathway of emotional exhaustion? In what ways do the promotion and prevention foci play distinct moderating roles within this process? By integrating the Social Information Processing Theory and the Regulatory Focus Theory, this paper endeavors to unearth the “double-edged sword” effect of E-leadership on creativity. On one hand, technology-driven leadership behaviors stimulate innovation by augmenting information circulation and enhancing employee autonomy. On the other hand, the potential heavy workload and ambiguous boundaries associated with e-leadership may exacerbate emotional exhaustion, thus impeding creativity. Simultaneously, the incorporation of the regulatory focus concept breaks through the static perspective of traditional mediation models. It offers a novel vantage point for elucidating the adaptation mechanisms of individual differences under digital-era pressures.

Theoretical framework

The Social Information Processing Theory is developed by synthesizing the key research findings from attribution theory, decision-making theory, information processing theory, and social learning theory. It postulates that the intricate and uncertain social environment has a profound impact on individual behavior12.

Individuals form specific attitudes and exhibit corresponding behaviors through the collation and interpretation of social information13. The Social Information Processing Theory argues that as the level of environmental uncertainty rises, individuals increasingly depend on social information as a regulatory mechanism. Through the attribution process, social information can effectively mold individuals’ attitudes and behaviors14.

In the context of E-leadership, when leaders disseminate leadership-related information to employees, employees are motivated to adapt to the use of information technology for E-leadership. This motivation stimulates their stronger desire to learn new digital management technologies or advanced information technologies. As a result, they actively participate in learning activities and devote more enthusiasm and energy. The Social Information Processing Theory explains how E-leadership drives creativity by shaping employees’ cognitive and emotional resource allocation. It has been well-documented that leadership behavior has a profound impact on employee attitudes and behaviors15.

Simultaneously, the continuous influence of digital technology exposes employees to external stimuli from new technologies and information. On one hand, this can, to a certain extent, alleviate employees’ emotional exhaustion, thereby enhancing their creative potential. On the other hand, the incessant flow of information technology may blur the temporal boundaries between work and rest as well as the spatial boundaries between work and family. Consequently, employees are affected by the uncertainty of environmental information, which can lead to a decline in job security and work enthusiasm, and even induce emotional exhaustion to some degree. Eventually, this emotional exhaustion can act as a constraint on employees’ creativity.

According to Hobfoll’s (1989) Conservation of Resources (COR) theory16individuals cope with environmental stress by acquiring and maintaining resources such as time, energy, social support, and autonomy. When resources are continuously depleted and cannot be effectively replenished, individuals will enter a “resource loss spiral,” resulting in negative psychological states like emotional exhaustion. E-leadership enables instant communication, cross-time and space collaboration, and rapid decision-making through technological media. Although it improves efficiency, it may also blur the boundaries between work and rest, keeping employees in a “stand-by online” state for an extended period4. Such continuous high-workload demands force employees to invest more cognitive and emotional resources. Moreover, the overuse of digital tools may weaken face-to-face supportive interactions, reducing the opportunities for replenishing social resources. According to the COR theory, when the rate of resource depletion exceeds the rate of replenishment, emotional exhaustion occurs. The COR theory also suggests that individuals experiencing resource depletion tend to adopt conservative strategies to protect their remaining resources, suppressing innovative behaviors. The innovation process is often accompanied by uncertainty and potential risks of failure, and individuals require redundant resources to cover the costs of trial and error17. Emotional exhaustion leads to resource scarcity, causing employees to avoid challenging tasks and thus limiting their creativity.

Research model and hypotheses

This section delineates the conceptual framework and hypotheses of the study, and simultaneously clarifies the interconnections among the variables. As depicted in Fig. 1, the study’s conceptual framework is presented. The research postulates that emotional exhaustion acts as a mediator in the relationship between E-leadership and employee creativity.

Fig. 1
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E-leadership drives employee creativity through emotional exhaustion, moderated by regulatory focus

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E-leadership and emotional exhaustion

This study delves into the impact mechanism of E-leadership on employee creativity. Emotional exhaustion and physical exhaustion are states that emerge from the over-utilization of emotional resources10. Among IT professionals, overwork serves as a more robust predictor of emotional exhaustion compared to other variables18. By using emotional exhaustion as a mediating variable, this research explores the relationship between E-leadership and employee creativity. Simultaneously, it constructs an explanatory framework for the impact mechanism of E-leadership on employee creativity. The influence of E-leadership enables employees to go beyond the boundaries of their “work-rest time” and exerts greater time requirements for task completion, which may potentially lead to an increased workload and emotional exhaustion.

Hypothesis 1

E-leadership drives a reduction in emotional exhaustion.

E-leadership and employee creativity

The application of information technology media significantly enhances the convenience and effectiveness of leadership. Previous research has indicated that E-leadership has a positive impact on individual creativity19. In the context of digital communication and interaction, E-leadership not only streamlines communication with followers via information technology but also enables the efficient collection and dissemination of essential information to support organizational operations1. For instance, charismatic leadership2 and empowering leadership have been demonstrated to have a positive influence on employees’ creativity3,20. In virtual environments, digital leaders can more easily adjust their leadership styles to match control mechanisms, thereby influencing subordinates’ creativity and promoting innovative behavior among employees9.

Hypothesis 2

E-leadership has a positive impact on employee creativity.

Emotional exhaustion and employee creativity

Emotional exhaustion is defined as the physical and mental fatigue that individuals experience when their psychological and emotional resources are depleted21. Employees in such a state lack vitality, encounter setbacks and nervousness, and feel that they are unable to fully commit to their work22. Job burnout, which is the most prominent manifestation of the over-utilization of psychological and emotional resources, includes physical fatigue as well as the sense of psychological and emotional exhaustion23. Notably, compared with depersonalization and a low sense of achievement, emotional exhaustion has a more significant negative impact on employees24,25,26.

Hypothesis 3

Emotional exhaustion has a negative impact on employee creativity.

E-leadership, emotional exhaustion and employee creativity

A meta-analysis by Charalampous et al. revealed that E-leadership significantly exacerbates employees’ emotional exhaustion27. The primary reason lies in the “always-on” pressure induced by technological tools, such as frequent instant messages and virtual meetings, which results in the over-consumption of cognitive resources. E-leadership blurs the boundaries between work and rest, reducing the opportunities for psychological detachment and thus impeding resource recovery and intensifying emotional exhaustion28. Emotionally exhausted employees tend to adopt “cognitive thrift” strategies and avoid innovative tasks that require divergent thinking, leading to a decline in creativity29. Emotional exhaustion weakens employees’ intrinsic interest in challenging tasks, making them more inclined to complete routine work rather than explore new methods30.

Hypothesis 4

Emotional exhaustion plays a mediating role in the influence of e-leadership on employees’ creativity.

Promoting regulatory focus, E-leadership and emotional exhaustion

Emotional exhaustion is the primary and most significant manifestation of job burnout, characterized by fatigue, indifference, alienation, loss of work enthusiasm, and exhaustion31. Prolonged exposure to pressure depletes individual resources, and a lack of resources or the inability to replenish them leads to the development of emotional exhaustion32. Particularly in environments with people-oriented high emotional demands and heavy workloads, the direct, frequent, and intense experience of emotions generates continuous tension, increasing the likelihood of emotional resource depletion and hindering employees’ creativity. Moreover, a high level of emotional exhaustion positively predicts turnover intention33.

A meta-analysis by Charalampous et al. (2023) revealed that E-leadership significantly exacerbates employees’ emotional exhaustion. The primary reason lies in the “always-on” pressure induced by technological tools27such as frequent instant messages and virtual meetings, which results in the over-consumption of cognitive resources. E-leadership blurs the boundaries between work and rest, reducing the opportunities for psychological detachment and thus impeding resource recovery and intensifying emotional exhaustion34. Emotionally exhausted employees tend to adopt “cognitive thrift” strategies and avoid innovative tasks that require divergent thinking, leading to a decline in creativity29. Emotional exhaustion weakens employees’ intrinsic interest in challenging tasks, making them more inclined to complete routine work rather than explore new methods30.

Regulatory focus theory was developed by Professor Higgins35and previous research has shown that the regulatory focus characteristics of leaders impact subordinates’ work performance36.

Individuals with a promotion-focused regulatory focus, as posited by Higgins35have a propensity to construe challenges as opportunities for resource acquisition. In the e-leadership context, employees characterized by a high level of promotion-focused regulatory focus are more inclined to actively leverage digital tools, such as collaboration platforms and real-time feedback mechanisms, to enhance efficiency. They perceive these digital resources as stepping-stones for skill development. This positive cognitive orientation not only facilitates the augmentation of resources, including self-efficacy and new skills, but also mitigates the adverse effects of resource depletion. Moreover, these employees demonstrate a greater willingness to invest their remaining resources in pursuit of long-term gains, such as the career advancement that can be achieved through innovative accomplishments37. To this end, they may employ time-management strategies to balance their workloads or seek support from leaders to optimize resource allocation. For instance, they might strategically schedule their tasks to ensure efficient use of time and access leadership-provided resources to address work-related demands more effectively. Consequently, the promotion-focused regulatory focus serves to attenuate the unidirectional resource depletion induced by e-leadership. By reinforcing resource-acquisition and investment behaviors, it alleviates the escalating trend of emotional exhaustion. This regulatory focus acts as a buffer, enabling employees to better cope with the potential stressors associated with e-leadership and maintain a more sustainable level of emotional well-being in the workplace.

Hypothesis 5

Promoting regulatory focus negatively moderates the relationship between E-leadership and emotional exhaustion. The higher the level of promoting regulatory focus, the weaker the effect of E-leadership on employee emotional exhaustion.

Prevention regulatory focus, emotional exhaustion and employee creativity

Individuals with a promotion-focused regulatory orientation are inclined to pursue rewards, high income levels, upward-oriented ideals, and achievements. Conversely, those with a prevention-focused regulatory orientation tend to avoid punishment, prioritize safety maintenance, set negative goals, and strive to avoid failure38. The promotion-focused individuals embrace challenges and are intrinsically motivated to pursue rewards and achievements39.

Based on the regulatory focus theory, Collin et al. developed and validated a leadership feedback model, which delved deeper into its impact on subordinate creativity40. Their research elaborated on how leadership feedback influences employees’ creativity. According to the self-determination theory proposed by Ryan and Deci, humans have an inherent potential for psychological growth and development41. Their self-determination can stimulate engagement in interesting behaviors that contribute to skill development.

In the context of the relationship between emotional exhaustion and employee innovative behavior, individuals with a high level of prevention-focused regulatory orientation may exhibit distinct responses. When experiencing emotional exhaustion, they are more likely to be vigilant about potential negative consequences. The strong motivation to avoid failure and maintain safety might prompt them to engage more actively in innovative behavior as a means of preventing negative outcomes. For example, they may be more cautious in their work processes, constantly seeking ways to improve procedures to avoid errors, thereby promoting innovative thinking.

Hypothesis 6

Prevention-focused regulatory orientation strengthens the negative effect of emotional exhaustion on creativity. the higher the level of prevention regulatory focus, the stronger the effect of emotional exhaustion on employee innovative behavior.

Method

Research setting and participants

In this study, participants were recruited from diverse domestic enterprises, encompassing the information and communication technology industry and large-scale state-owned enterprises. The data collection was carried out through online questionnaire distribution. Demographic variables, such as gender, age, and education level, were selected as independent variables. These variables were considered crucial in exploring the research questions, as they can potentially influence the relationships among the key constructs under investigation, such as the impact of E- leadership on employee creativity and the moderating effects of regulatory focus orientations. By including a wide range of enterprises, the study aims to enhance the generalizability of the findings, providing more comprehensive insights into the complex relationships within the organizational context.

Sample and data collection procedure

This study integrated theoretical literature analysis with the design, online distribution, and collection of questionnaires. The research sample was drawn from personnel within the domestic information and communication technology industry and large-scale state-owned enterprises. Data collection was executed via an online questionnaire approach during the period from February 2020 to April 2020. Prominent enterprises involved in this study mainly included Huawei and Alibaba Group.

A total of 400 questionnaires were disseminated, and 366 valid responses were retrieved, with a validity rate of 91.5%. In the process of questionnaire design, multiple demographic variables were incorporated, such as gender, age, education level, length of service, online working hours, and job position. These variables were deemed essential for comprehensively summarizing and in-depth discussing the outcomes of the hypothesis tests, as they can potentially have an impact on the relationships among the key constructs under study, including the impact of E-leadership on employee creativity and the moderating effects of regulatory focus orientations.

Measures

E-leadership (the independent variable)

In this study, the 18-item scale developed by Roman et al. (2019) was employed to measure E-leadership4. This scale encompasses six dimensions: digital society, E- communication, E-team, E-change, E-technology, and E-trust. It exhibits high internal consistency, with a comparative fitting index (CFI) of 0.95, suggesting an excellent model fit. In light of expert advice, the scale was refined, reducing the number of items from 18 to 15. The Linker six-point scoring system was adopted, ranging from “total disagreement” to “full agreement,” where higher scores indicate a greater extent of E-leadership.

Table 1 displays the primary demographic statistics of the respondents. Among the 366 participants, 186 were male and 180 were female. Concerning age, 187 respondents (51.1% of the sample) were 30 years old or younger, while 179 respondents (48.9%) were over 30 years old. Regarding the educational attainment, 274 respondents (74.9%) held a bachelor’s degree or lower, and 92 respondents (25.1%) had a master’s degree or higher. In terms of work experience, 49.2% of the respondents had 1–3 years of experience, and 50.8% had more than 3 years of experience. Additionally, 29.0% of the respondents worked online 40 h or less per week, while 71.0% worked more than 40 h. Moreover, 78.1% of the respondents were employees, and 21.9% were managers.

Table 1 Description of demographic characteristics (N = 366)
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Employee creativity (dependent variable)

To evaluate staff creativity, this study adopted a six-item scale originally developed by Scott and Bruce42. The scale is based on a six-point Likert scale, with response options ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. A higher score on this scale corresponds to a higher level of employee innovative behavior, which reflects the degree to which employees generate novel and useful ideas, as well as implement innovative practices within the work context.

Emotional exhaustion

The emotional exhaustion level of employees was measured by employing a single-dimensional scale developed by Boswell et al.43. The Linker six-point scoring system was utilized, with scores ranging from “completely disagree” to “completely agree”. A higher score on this scale indicates a higher level of employee emotional exhaustion. Rigorous pre-testing and validation procedures have been carried out, ensuring the good reliability and validity of the questionnaire, which enables accurate and reliable measurement of employees’ emotional exhaustion states.

Regulatory focus

In this study, the regulatory focus scale developed by Lockwood et al. was utilized44. Comprising 18 items, this scale is designed to assess both the promotion-focused regulatory orientation and the prevention-focused regulatory orientation. The Linker six-point scale was adopted for scoring, with responses ranging from “total disagreement” to “full agreement”. A higher score on the scale indicates a more pronounced regulatory focus. This scale has been widely used in relevant research and has demonstrated satisfactory psychometric properties, ensuring the reliability and validity of the measurement of regulatory focus levels in the context of this study.

Covariates

In the analysis of the relationships between E-leadership and employee creativity, the variables of employee gender and age were treated as control variables. Employee gender and age may potentially influence the perception and response to E-leadership, thus controlling these variables helps to isolate the true effects of the independent variables of interest. Additionally, the level of education was incorporated as a control factor. Employees with different educational backgrounds may exhibit disparities in information technology proficiency, which could impact their interaction with E-leadership and subsequent creative performance.

Furthermore, considering that the core of this study lies in the behavioral dynamics between leaders and members, variables related to working seniority and the duration of working with leaders were included in the investigation. Working seniority can reflect an employee’s accumulated work experience and tacit knowledge, while the duration of working with leaders may affect the degree of understanding and communication between them, both of which are likely to have an impact on the relationships under study.

Results

Validity and reliability analyses

The research findings are presented in the order of the analyses conducted. First and foremost, the validity and reliability analyses of the scales are presented. Subsequently, the regression results regarding the main effects of E-leadership on employee creativity are reported. Finally, the verification of the six hypotheses is evaluated.

Table 2 showcases the Validity Statistics. In this table, the reliability of the measurement instruments is appraised through Cronbach’s alpha (α) coefficients. According to the widely-accepted standards, Cronbach’s α coefficients equal to or greater than 0.8 indicate excellent internal consistency. Specifically, the obtained Cronbach’s α values are as follows: for E-leadership, α = 0.973; for Promoting regulatory focus, α = 0.950; for Prevention regulatory focus, α = 0.961; for Emotional exhaustion, α = 0.870; and for Employee creativity, α = 0.939.

To evaluate the fit of the measurement model, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was carried out using Mplus 8.3. Prior to performing the CFA, proper precautions were taken to tackle the problem of inflated measurement errors caused by multiple items for the latent variable. These measures were also aimed at enhancing the reliability and normality of the derived measure, as per the suggestions of Nasser-Abu and Wisenbaker45 and Shi et al.46. Six indices were selected to assess the model fit: χ2/df = 1.370 (< 3), SRMR = 0.031 (< 0.08), GFI = 0.904 (> 0.9), NFI = 0.947 (> 0.9), IFI = 0.985 (> 0.9), and TLI = 0.984 (> 0.9). The results demonstrated that the model fit met the significant criteria, which indicates the adequacy of the measurement model in depicting the relationships among the latent variables.

Table 2 also presents the results of the validity testing, which cover factor loading scores, composite reliability (CR), standard error (SE), and average variance extracted (AVE). All factor loadings exceeded 0.5, confirming measurement validity, providing empirical evidence for their significance. Moreover, the factor loading scores, AVE, and CR of all five variables surpassed the acceptable thresholds:

For E-leadership: Factor loading ranges from 0.803 to 0.850 (p < 0.01), AVE = 0.693, and CR = 0.931. For Promoting regulatory focus: Factor loading ranges from 0.807 to 0.871 (p < 0.01), AVE = 0.702, and CR = 0.950. For Prevention regulatory focus: Factor loading ranges from 0.789 to 0.864 (p < 0.01), AVE = 0.709, and CR = 0.961. For Emotional exhaustion: Factor loading ranges from 0.799 to 0.864 (p < 0.01), AVE = 0.692, and CR = 0.871. For Employee creativity: Factor loading ranges from 0.820 to 0.875 (p < 0.01), AVE = 0.721, and CR = 0.939.

Table 2 Reliability and validity statistics
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The Unmeasured Latent Method Construct (ULMC) method, proposed by Richardson et al.47 was employed to conduct the common method bias test. Based on the five-factor verification model used in this study, the ULMC method considers all items as indicators of a method factor (M). Simultaneously, the original five factors function as local factors within the ULMC verification model. If the fit indices of the ULMC model do not show significant differences from those of the validation model that only contains trait factors, it implies that the common method bias in the measurement data is not substantial.

The fit index results of the ULMC model and the model with only trait factors are presented in Table 3. For the ULMC model, the fit indices are as follows: χ2/df = 1.296, SRMR = 0.026, GFI = 0.908, NFI = 0.949, IFI = 0.984, TLI = 0.981. A comparison with the four-factor validation model reveals that △χ2/△df = 19.469 (30), p > 0.05. This indicates that there is no significant difference between the two models, suggesting that the common method bias in the research data is not significant.

Table 3 Test results of common method bias based on ULMC method
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Hypotheses testing

Table 4 displays the means, standard deviations, and inter-correlations of all variables associated with E-leadership, emotional exhaustion, regulatory focus, and employee creativity. These descriptive statistics provide a preliminary overview of the data distribution and the relationships among the key variables under study.

Table 4 Descriptive statistics and correlations
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Hypothesis 1 postulates that E-leadership has a negative impact on emotional exhaustion. The results of the regression analysis are presented in Table 5. Hypothesis 5 contends that the promotion-focused regulatory orientation moderates the negative relationship between E-leadership and emotional exhaustion.

To test these hypotheses, a hierarchical regression analysis was carried out. In Step 1, emotional exhaustion was regressed on the main-effect terms of E-leadership, promotion-focused regulatory orientation, and the previously mentioned control variables. In Step 2, an interaction term (E-leadership * promotion-focused regulatory orientation) was incorporated into the model. Prior to conducting the analysis, the variables of promotion-focused regulatory orientation and E-leadership were centered. This was achieved by subtracting the mean value from each score. Centering these variables ensured that the main-effect terms and the interaction term were based on the centered scores. The findings of this analysis are shown in Table 5.

Table 5 Regression results for emotional exhaustion
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The results from Step 2 in Table 5 indicate a significant negative relationship between E-leadership and emotional exhaustion (β = -0.208, p < 0.01). Thus, Hypothesis 1 is supported. The interaction between E-leadership and the promotion-focused regulatory orientation shows a significant association with emotional exhaustion (β = 0.14, p = 0.01 < 0.05). To further explore the nature of this interaction, a simple slope analysis was carried out in accordance with the method proposed by Aiken and West48. When the level of the promotion-focused regulatory orientation is low, E-leadership exerts a negative and significant influence on emotional exhaustion (β = − 0.33, p < 0.01). Conversely, when the level of the promotion-focused regulatory orientation is high, the negative impact of E-leadership on emotional exhaustion is not significant (β = − 0.08, p = 0.33 > 0.05). The slope under the condition of low promotion-focused regulatory orientation is steeper than that under the high-level condition, which provides support for Hypothesis 5 (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
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Promoting regulatory focus Schematic diagram of regulating action. EL E-leadership

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Hypothesis 2 posits that E-leadership has a positive influence on employee creativity. Hypothesis 3 suggests that emotional exhaustion has a negative impact on employee creativity. Hypothesis 6 proposes that the prevention-focused regulatory orientation moderates the negative relationship between emotional exhaustion and employee creativity. To test these hypotheses, a hierarchical regression analysis was conducted. In Step 1, employee creativity was regressed on the main-effect terms of E-leadership, emotional exhaustion, prevention-focused regulatory orientation, and the previously mentioned control variables. In Step 2, an interaction term (emotional exhaustion × prevention-focused regulatory orientation) was included in the model. Before the analysis, the variables of prevention-focused regulatory orientation and emotional exhaustion were mean-centered. Specifically, the mean value of each variable was subtracted from its respective scores. This centering process ensured that both the main-effect terms and the interaction term were based on the centered scores. The results of this analysis are presented in Table 6.

Table 6 Regression results for employee creativity
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The results in Step 2 of Table 6 reveal a significant positive relationship between e-leadership and employee creativity (β = 0.28, p < 0.01), which lends support to Hypothesis 2. Moreover, there exists a significant negative relationship between emotional exhaustion and employee creativity (β = − 0.26, p < 0.01), thus supporting Hypothesis 3.

Mediation analysis for Hypothesis 4.

A bootstrapped mediation analysis (5,000 resamples with bias-corrected 95% CI) was conducted to test whether emotional exhaustion mediates the effect of E-leadership on employee creativity. The results showed a significant indirect effect (β = 0.14, SE = 0.03, 95% CI [0.08, 0.21]), supporting Hypothesis 4.

Moderated mediation analysis for Hypothesis 4.

To further examine whether the indirect effect of E-leadership on employee creativity via emotional exhaustion is contingent on regulatory focus, we conducted a bootstrapped moderated mediation analysis. Based on the Step 2 regression model in Table 6, a bootstrapping re-sampling approach with bias-corrected 95% confidence intervals was employed to test the significance of the mediating path under different levels of the moderator. The results indicate that when regulatory focus was at a low level (one standard deviation below the mean), the indirect effect of E-leadership on employee creativity through emotional exhaustion was significant (β = 0.14, SE = 0.03, 95% CI [0.08, 0.21]). However, when regulatory focus was at a high level (one standard deviation above the mean), this indirect effect became non-significant (β = 0.04, SE = 0.04, 95% CI [− 0.03, 0.11]). These findings suggest that regulatory focus significantly moderates the indirect path from E-leadership to employee creativity through emotional exhaustion, providing support for Hypothesis 4 (see Table 7).

The results indicate that when the regulatory focus is at a low level (mean − 1 standard deviation), the indirect effect of E-leadership on employee creativity through emotional exhaustion is significant (β = 0.14, SE = 0.03, 95% CI [0.08, 0.21]). Conversely, when the regulatory focus is at a high level (mean + 1 standard deviation), the indirect effect through emotional exhaustion is not significant (β = 0.04, SE = 0.04, 95% CI [− 0.03, 0.11]). These findings suggest that the regulatory focus moderates the indirect effect of E-leadership on employee creativity through emotional exhaustion, providing support for Hypothesis 4 (see Table 7).

Table 7 Indirect effect with regulation
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A significant positive relationship was observed between e-leadership and employee creativity, while a significant negative relationship was found between emotional exhaustion and employee creativity, which is consistent with the conceptual analysis. However, the most notable finding pertains to the test of Hypothesis 5. In line with Hypothesis 5, the interaction between emotional exhaustion and the prevention-focused regulatory orientation exhibited a significant association with leadership aspiration (β = − 0.20, p < 0.01). To further explore the nature of this interaction, a simple slope analysis was carried out in accordance with the method proposed by Aiken and West (1991)46. When the level of the prevention-focused regulatory orientation is low, emotional exhaustion has no significant effect on employee creativity (β = − 0.08, p = 0.237 > 0.05). In contrast, when the level of the prevention-focused regulatory orientation is high, emotional exhaustion exerts a significant negative impact on employee creativity (β = − 0.39, p < 0.01). The slope under the high-prevention-focused regulatory orientation condition is steeper than that under the low-prevention-focused regulatory orientation condition, which provides support for Hypothesis 6 (see Fig. 3).

Fig. 3
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Prevention regulatory focus Schematic diagram of regulating action. EE emotional exhaustion

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Discussion

This study delves into the relationship between E-leadership and employee creativity, taking into account the mediating role of emotional exhaustion and the moderating effect of regulatory focus. Data were gathered via online questionnaires from 366 participants, and the analysis was conducted using SPSS 27.0 software. As posited by Demeroutie et al.49when work demands surpass an individual’s capabilities and remain unmitigated over an extended time frame, it can result in diminished efficiency, low morale, and emotional exhaustion. Positive emotions are found to boost cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills, consequently promoting employee creativity50. Additionally, it is well-established that positive emotions can enhance employees’ creative thinking abilities51and the regulatory focus traits of leaders can influence the work performance of subordinates52. The findings of this study indicate that regulatory focus negatively moderates the relationship between emotional exhaustion and employee creativity. Specifically, a higher level of regulatory focus attenuates the inhibitory effect of emotional exhaustion on creativity. E-leadership has an indirect impact on employee creativity through the mediation of emotional exhaustion, which is further regulated by regulatory focus. When employees possess a high regulatory focus, E-leadership is more effective in stimulating creativity. These results carry significant implications for both theoretical development and practical applications (see Fig. 4).

Fig. 4
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Schematic representation of the impact results of the research model

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Theoretical implications

Current research on e-leadership mainly focuses on its application in the information technology field. The research delves deep into the influence of information technology workers on leaders and leadership styles within information technology organizations. Although scholars mainly study creativity from perspectives such as personality traits, work characteristics, team characteristics, and the organizational environment, the influence of different leadership styles on employee creativity has received relatively less attention. This study verifies the impacts of e-leadership, emotional exhaustion, and regulatory focus on employee creativity, thus expanding the understanding of the antecedent variables of creativity.

The theoretical contributions of this study are manifested in three aspects. First and foremost, for the first time, this study integrates emotional exhaustion as a core mediating variable into the relationship model between E-leadership and creativity, thereby unearthing the psychological costs concealed behind technological empowerment. This novel perspective enriches the understanding of the underlying mechanisms within this research domain.

Secondly, by conducting a two-path analysis grounded in the Regulatory Focus Theory, this study elucidates the dynamic moderating function of employees’ cognitive inclinations in the relationship between stress and creativity. The in-depth exploration provides a solid theoretical foundation for the development of personalized management strategies, enabling organizations to better address the diverse needs of their employees.

Thirdly, this research extends the application boundary of the Social Information Processing Theory in the digital context. It accentuates how technological media exert an influence on employees’ psychology and behaviors via social information transmission, which broadens the theoretical application scope and deepens the understanding of the digital-era work environment.

At the practical level, the research conclusions offer tangible and actionable insights for organizations striving to optimize their leadership models, prevent emotional exhaustion among employees, and stimulate innovation during the digital transformation process. For example, for employees with a strong prevention focus, it is crucial to alleviate the negative impacts of emotional exhaustion by clearly defining task boundaries and establishing effective risk-aversion mechanisms. This approach can help these employees better cope with work-related stress and maintain their work efficiency. For those with a promotion focus, organizations can further strengthen the autonomy and growth opportunities bestowed by technology. By doing so, employees’ creativity can be maximally unleashed, contributing to the overall innovation-driven development of the organization.

Practical strategies for managing emotional exhaustion and enhancing creativity in digital leadership

In the context of China’s burgeoning digital economy, organizational managers can strategically harness advanced communication technologies and refine the organization’s perception system. By doing so, they can boost information exchanges, enhance communication sensitivity, and cultivate a digital-strategic vision. These efforts will contribute to the promotion of the organization’s digital transformation and development. Moreover, managers should be cognizant of the impact of employees’ personal characteristics on their creativity. Given the individual differences in employees’ adaptability, the implementation of E-leadership might trigger emotional exhaustion. Thus, it is of utmost importance to encourage employees to embrace innovation, learn from failures, and foster a culture that promotes innovative behaviors within the organization.

Leaders also need to recognize the influence of emotional exhaustion on employee creativity, pay attention to employees’ individual traits, and effectively utilize the situation. The study has shown that employees with a higher level of regulatory focus are less affected by emotional exhaustion in terms of their creativity. This finding suggests that employees’ self-regulation can effectively mitigate the negative impacts of emotional exhaustion on creativity. Organizations should tailor interventions to enhance promotion-focused employees’ autonomy and mitigate prevention-focused employees’ risk aversion, thereby enabling them to better manage their emotions and maintain high-level creativity in the workplace.

Conclusions

The present study on the relationship between E-leadership and employee creativity utilized a questionnaire-based approach relying on employee self-assessment. Nevertheless, the data collection in this research was confined to a single time period. In contrast to longitudinal studies, this may render the results less persuasive.

For future research endeavors, it is advisable to collect data across multiple time periods and utilize paired data. Such an approach can significantly enhance the accuracy and rigor of the research findings. With the continuous development of the digital economy, countries exhibit diverse degrees of digital advancement. The digital divide in collaborative technology has the potential to impede the smooth circulation of the digital economy. However, the emergence of E-leadership has become an inescapable reality.

The future trajectory of E-leadership unfolds a panorama of promising avenues for in-depth exploration. E-leadership, having emerged concomitantly with the burgeoning application of the digital economy, has established itself as a hitherto uncharted domain of leadership behavior. As such, it represents a nascent research area, brimming with potential for academic and practical inquiry.

The findings of this study demonstrate that regulatory focus exerts a negative moderating effect on the relationship between emotional exhaustion and employee creativity. Specifically, a higher level of regulatory focus mitigates the inhibitory impact of emotional exhaustion on employee creativity. Additionally, E-leadership has an indirect influence on employee creativity through the mediation of emotional exhaustion, which is further moderated by regulatory focus.

This research enriches the study of the influence mechanism between E-leadership and employee creativity and provides valuable references for leadership practices in the digital age. However, the research also has certain limitations. For instance, the sole use of cross-sectional data fails to capture the dynamic changes of variables, and the representativeness of the sample requires further improvement. In future studies, researchers could consider collecting data at multiple time points, expanding the sample size, and incorporating other influencing factors to enhance the research rigor. Furthermore, follow-up studies could explore the optimal practices and applications of E-leadership, as well as strategies for effectively preventing and alleviating employees’ emotional exhaustion to boost creativity. It is anticipated that continued in-depth research on E-leadership will offer more effective guidance and recommendations for organizational practices.