Introduction

Physical activity (PA) may be beneficial for healthy physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development in early childhood, with a particular emphasis on the interaction between physical activity and motor skill acquisition1. This developmental significance extends across the lifespan, influencing health trajectories through adolescence and into adulthood2. In preschool contexts, structured physical activity programs can help to enhance motor skills, cognitive abilities, and social competencies, and are therefore recommended for inclusion in the curriculum for this age group3. Recent preschool-focused syntheses indicate that PA interventions in early childhood can meaningfully improve physical fitness, with dose–response estimates suggesting ~ 180–380 min per week depending on the fitness component4. However, while efforts are being made to increase physical activity in preschool contexts, there is a need for more intensive interventions and further research to establish optimal activity types and durations for this age group5.

Among the various approaches to implementing physical activity programs for preschool children, those that combine motor engagement and social interaction6 are particularly promising for fostering motor skills, executive function, and social development7. In this context, ball games may be especially beneficial when appropriately adapted to the children’s motor skill levels. For example, one study involving young girls found that participation in ball games led to improvements in motor skills after just nine weeks8. This is also consistent with a study showing that six-year-old children who regularly participated in ball games—specifically invasion games—showed better manipulative and locomotor competence compared to their peers9. Further research also showed that 5-year-old children who participated in ball games benefited in both locomotor and manipulative skill domains10.

When adapted to preschoolers’ developmental level, ball games can provide both an accessible and enjoyable way to practice manipulative and locomotor skills. Beyond these general benefits, sport-specific training has also been shown to foster fine motor skills in a task-relevant manner. For example, Amato et al.11 showed that young basketball players outperformed both multi-sport peers and non-sportsmen of the same age on standardized manual dexterity tasks, suggesting that the repeated hand–object interactions inherent in sports as basketball (e.g., dribbling, passing, shooting) may enhance fine manual control even in childhood.

At the same time, potential drawbacks must be considered since observational and qualitative work in early childhood settings shows gendered participation patterns during recess and playground play—boys tend to dominate ball-game spaces and pace, with girls sometimes excluded from passes or key play opportunities, which can reduce engagement for less skilled or less assertive children (risk of social exclusion and lower perceived competence)12,13. Moreover, studies identify structural barriers (limited space/equipment, conflicts) and gender differences in how children use play areas, which can amplify inequities if activities are highly competitive or rely heavily on advanced ball skills14.

Although the use of ball games appears to be interesting and beneficial for preschool children, little is known about their actual effects on children’s participation levels during these activities. For example, in older children (9 years old), a descriptive study15 found that small-sided games (ball games) resulted in an average of 12.24 counts per minute of light physical activity (PA), 4.22 of moderate PA, and 8.12 of vigorous PA. These activities also maintained a mean heart rate of 71.18% and covered approximately 1,327 m in a single session15. However, the design of the ball games can be influenced by various design factors, including the scoring method, the number of participants, and the nature of interactions between them16. For example, in children aged 7 to 9 years, smaller-sided games (using 3v3 and 5v5 formats) led to an increased number of technical actions and greater individual involvement during gameplay17. A study comparing different game formats in girls and boys found that smaller formats, such as 2v2, resulted in greater cardiovascular strain18. Additionally, it was observed that boys found playing mixed-gender games less enjoyable than playing with only boys, and overall, larger game formats were perceived as more fun than smaller ones18.

Although direct tests of small-sided ball-game manipulations (e.g., team size; hand- vs. foot-based play) in preschoolers are scarce, related preschool interventions point in the same direction: structuring movement and social interaction can improve key developmental outcomes19. Recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses focused specifically on preschool-aged children showed that structured or guided PA programs may enhance fundamental movement skills, often outperforming unstructured play, with effects moderated by program dose and duration19. In addition, experimental studies in preschoolers show that both guided active play and targeted ball-skill programs can produce measurable improvements in motor competence20. Despite these promising findings, comparisons between different game formats remain minimal. This limits our understanding of which types of play may best promote inclusion, engagement, and physical activity in preschool settings. The absence of such evidence makes it difficult to determine the actual effects of specific game formats on physical activity levels, motor engagement, and children’s enjoyment. Addressing this gap would provide practitioners with more robust information to guide the integration of appropriate play formats in early childhood education.

We prioritized physical activity levels because PA in the early years (0–4) is a core health indicator linked to favorable adiposity, cardiometabolic, motor, and psychosocial outcomes, and is recommended in guidelines derived from systematic reviews in this age group21. Motor engagement was selected to capture the quality and topography of children’s participation during games (e.g., slow, moderate, fast movements; social context), which observational systems such as OSRAC-P were specifically designed to quantify in preschoolers and which relate to opportunities for practicing fundamental motor skills in structured tasks22. Moreover, preschool ball-skill interventions demonstrate that targeted, structured participation can yield measurable benefits in motor competence, reinforcing the importance of observing engagement within sessions23. Finally, we included enjoyment because affective responses to activity are consistent predictors of ongoing participation and future PA behavior in children, making enjoyment a motivational determinant to assess alongside behavior and engagement24.

Accordingly, this study aimed to compare two formats of ball games (1v1 and 2v2), adapted for preschool children in soccer- and basketball-related topics, by examining physical activity levels measured via accelerometry, motor engagement through observational tools, and enjoyment levels reported by the children. We hypothesized greater motor engagement in 1v1 than 2v2, given the higher rate of ball contacts and on-task actions per child in smaller formats25. We also hypothesized that 1v1 (vs. 2v2) would elicit higher vigorous PA (accelerometry), with 2v2 yielding relatively more light-to-moderate activity due to shared responsibility25.

Methods

Design and setting

This study employed a counterbalanced repeated measures design, in which the same children experienced all ball game formats (1v1 and 2v2 in soccer- and basketball-related adaptations) in varying orders to minimize sequencing bias. The sessions took place within the preschool physical activity program over two consecutive weeks, with each game format introduced twice per week in isolated sessions. Classes were led by the children’s regular physical education and classroom teachers, preserving the educational environment. Researchers intervened only to fit the children with accelerometers and to place video cameras in the space for post-session analysis, ensuring no disruption to the classes. After each session, researchers guided the children in rating their enjoyment using a visual analog scale.

Participants

An a priori sample size estimation was conducted based on a previous study18 that compared different play formats among boys and girls. Although that study did not report physical activity (PA) levels, we used the reported ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) as a surrogate measure. From the F-values provided, we inferred a partial eta squared (η²) of 0.099. This corresponded to an effect size 𝑓=0.331, which was entered into GPower (version 3.1.9.6.) using an F-test for repeated measures ANOVA (within-subjects design), with 1 group and 4 measurements. Based on these parameters, GPower recommended a minimum sample size of 21 participants.

Participants were recruited from local preschools that include PA in their programs. The center directors and parents were informed about the study and invited to participate. Since the games were integrated into the regular activities, children whose parents did not consent to participation continued with their usual classes but were not recorded. Those who volunteered allowed their sessions to be recorded and measured.

A priori eligibility criteria were established as follows: (i) only male 5–6 years old preschool children were included; (ii) participants had to be present for all measurement sessions; (iii) children needed to be regularly involved in physical activity programs offered by the preschool; and (iv) children had to be healthy and available to participate in physical activities. Exclusion criteria were: (i) female children; and (ii) lack of availability to complete all measurements or to participate in the activities.

From a pool of 28 interested volunteers, 2 were excluded due to illness during the observation period. Therefore, 26 male preschool children participated in the study. The main characteristics of the participants were: age 5.7 ± 0.5 years, height 116.9 ± 5.8 cm, and body mass 21.9 ± 2.5 kg. These children were regular participants in the preschool’s physical activity program and were already familiar with ball game sports activities.

The study adhered to ethical standards for research involving children. Both the children and their parents were informed about the study, including detailed explanations of the procedures and the voluntary nature of participation. After agreeing to participate, the legal guardians signed a free and informed consent form. Furthermore, the study was conducted under the approved protocol of Yibin Third People’s Hospital (approval code YBSDSRMYY-2024-01, dated 16/01/2024). The research complied with the ethical principles defined in the Declaration of Helsinki.

The ball game formats

Ball games were incorporated into the regular activities promoted PA classes in the preschool. Two classes participated in the study, each consisting of 20 children. As mentioned earlier, only volunteers were recorded, although the other children also attended the same classes without being monitored. The classes took place outdoors on playgrounds and were led by the physical education teacher and an educator.

Each class began with a general conversation with the children about the upcoming activities, followed by a standardized warm-up. The first activity, lasting three minutes, was the Ball Roll Relay performed in pairs, which was then followed by five minutes of a “catch and freeze” game using soft balls. After these warm-up activities, participants were grouped and introduced to the ball games. It is important to note that the children had already been familiarized with these games in earlier sessions as part of their regular classes.

The descriptions of the games are presented in Table 1. To ensure a more controlled process, multiple balls were placed around the playing area to facilitate quick repositioning. Additionally, researchers assisted in retrieving and replacing balls that went out of bounds. Throughout the games, the physical education teacher and educator provided regular feedback to help keep the children focused and to ensure the rules were consistently followed.

Only one game format was implemented per class over a two-week period. Two sessions per week were conducted, spaced 48 h apart. To avoid sequence bias, the order of game formats was randomized. For example, while some children completed the sequence of Challenge 1v1 (foot), Challenge 1v1 (hands), Challenge 2v2 (foot), and Challenge 2v2 (hands), others have performed the formats in a different order, such as Challenge 2v2 (foot), Challenge 1v1 (hands), Challenge 1v1 (foot), and Challenge 2v2 (hands). The randomization was performed in advance using opaque envelopes, with each sequence randomly assigned to groups of four children. This meant that within the same class, while two pairs followed one sequence, another group of four children followed a different sequence.

Table 1 Description of the games implemented.
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Physical activity levels and motor engagement

The PA levels were monitored using the wGT3X accelerometers (ActiGraph). This instrument was already validated for its capacity to estimate PA levels in children26. The accelerometer was worn on the right hip, positioned just above the iliac crest and close to the body’s center of gravity27. We positioned the ActiGraph on the right hip (mid-axillary line above the iliac crest) to align with preschool calibration/validation studies that derived commonly used hip-based cut-points and protocols28,29,30.

Data were collected at a sampling rate of 100 Hz and initially stored in 1-s epochs to preserve the short bursts typical of preschool activity. Because accelerometer cut-points are epoch-dependent, we reintegrated the data to 15-s epochs prior to classification, consistent with the calibration epoch of the selected cut-points29. Physical activity intensity was then categorized using the widely applied Evenson et al. thresholds (sedentary = 0–100 counts per minute [cpm]; light = 101–2295 cpm; moderate = 2296–4012 cpm; vigorous ≥ 4013 cpm). This procedure follows methodological guidance to match the epoch length to the calibration study from which cut-points were derived31,32.

Motor engagement during the games was also observed and measured. A validated version of the Observational System for Recording Physical Activity in Children–Preschool Version (OSRAC-P) was implemented22. Given the nature of the games, the instrument was adapted to ensure that the items were appropriate. Specifically, the following activity categories were used, in line with the original study: (1) stationary or motionless; (2) stationary w/limb or trunk movements; (3) slow-easy movements; (4) moderate movements; and (5) fast movements. Categories related to non-physical behaviors (e.g., talking, transitional activities, or out-of-area behavior) were removed because they were not directly relevant to motor engagement during structured game play.

The games were recorded using video cameras, with each camera focused on two games occurring side by side. This setup allowed for a clear recording of all activities and movements. Following each session, two trained researchers conducted the observations and coding. Their reliability had been tested through a pilot study using the same two games at two different time points. The pilot showed a Kappa coefficient of 0.86 for intra-observer reliability and 0.74 for inter-observer reliability. To address discrepancies, all double-coded segments were jointly reviewed by both observers, and disagreements were resolved through consensus discussion. For data collection, it was followed the original OSRAC-P recommendation of a momentary time sampling method. Each focal child was observed for a 5-second interval, followed by a 25-second coding period—resulting in two observations per minute, and a total of 12 observational samples per game format.

Enjoyment levels

A visual analog scale was used to measure children’s enjoyment during physical activity, based on a validated scale encompassing four key constructs33: attraction, preference, environment, and social engagement. The scale uses a four-point rating system: 1 (not at all), 2 (somewhat), 3 (a little), and 4 (a lot), with each construct rated separately33. To ensure cultural and linguistic appropriateness, the verbal anchors and associated questions were translated and adapted by two independent researchers with expertise in education and sports sciences. This process aimed to ensure the scale’s cross-cultural validity. Children responded to the questions immediately after completing the games. Their answers were recorded by the researchers, who individually introduced the questionnaire to each child, guided them through the process, and documented their responses. Because preschoolers typically have limited reading and reporting ability, many child enjoyment scales are adapted using pictorial anchors or researcher assistance. For example, Moore et al.34 validated the PACES in children (not preschoolers) using self/assisted reporting formats. Jekauc et al.35 further demonstrated reliability and validity of enjoyment scales in children/adolescents under various administration modes.

Statistical procedures

An exploratory analysis of normality and homogeneity of variances was conducted using the Shapiro-Wilk test and Levene’s test, respectively, for PA levels measured by accelerometer. Both assumptions were met, with results indicating normality (p > 0.05) and homogeneity (p > 0.05). Based on these findings, a parametric analysis was conducted using a two-way repeated measures ANOVA, examining the interaction between game format (1v1 vs. 2v2) and sport-related ball game type (soccer vs. basketball) for PA levels measured by accelerometer. In cases where significant interactions were found, post hoc comparisons were performed using the Bonferroni correction. The assumption of sphericity was assessed using Mauchly’s test, and if violated, the Greenhouse-Geisser correction was applied. Effect sizes for the ANOVA were estimated using partial eta squared (\(\:{\eta\:}_{p}^{2}\)), while pairwise comparisons in the post hoc analysis were evaluated using Cohen’s d to determine the magnitude of differences between conditions. Cohen’s d was interpreted using the following thresholds36: trivial (0.0–0.2), small (0.2–0.6), moderate (0.6–1.2), and large (> 1.2).

For motor engagement and enjoyment, which were measured on ordinal scales, non-parametric tests were used. The Friedman test was applied to assess differences across repeated measures conditions. When significant effects were detected, pairwise comparisons were performed using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test. To control for Type I error due to multiple comparisons (n = 6), the Bonferroni correction was applied by adjusting the significance threshold (α) to 0.05/6 = 0.0083. Effect sizes for Wilcoxon tests were reported using the rank biserial correlation (r), with interpretation thresholds as follows: small (r ≥ 0.1), medium (r ≥ 0.3), and large (r ≥ 0.5). All statistical analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics version 29.0 (IBM corp., USA), with significance set at p < 0.05.

Results

The two-way repeated measures ANOVA conducted for light PA levels (Fig. 1) revealed a significant main effect of game format (F(1,25) = 7.313; p = 0.012; \(\:{\eta\:}_{p}^{2}\)=0.226). However, there was no significant main effect of sport type (F(1,25)=0.981; p=0.331; \(\:{\eta\:}_{p}^{2}\)=0.038), nor a significant interaction between format and sport (F(1,25)=2.462; p = 0.129; \(\:{\eta\:}_{p}^{2}\)=0.090). Specifically, significant differences were observed between formats, with 1v1 showing significantly lower values than 2v2 (25.2 vs. 27.2 cpm; p = 0.012; d = 0.530, small effect size).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Bar graphs and confidence intervals showing light physical activity (cpm) across game formats (1v1 and 2v2) and sports (soccer and basketball).

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The analysis conducted for moderate PA levels (Fig. 2) revealed a significant main effect of sport type on light activity (F(1,25) = 8.571; p = 0.007; \(\:{\eta\:}_{p}^{2}\)=0.255). However, there was no significant main effect of format type (F(1,25)=1.646; p=0.211; \(\:{\eta\:}_{p}^{2}\)=0.062), nor a significant interaction between format and sport (F(1,25)=0.006; p = 0.937; \(\:{\eta\:}_{p}^{2}\)<0.001). Specifically, significant differences were observed between sports types, with soccer-related showing significantly greater values than basketball (9.79 vs. 8.67 cpm; p = 0.007; d = 0.575, small effect size).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Bar graphs and confidence intervals showing moderate physical activity (cpm) across game formats (1v1 and 2v2) and sports (soccer and basketball).

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Analysis conducted for vigorous PA levels (Fig. 3) revealed a significant main effect of game format (F(1,25) = 40.846; p < 0.001; \(\:{\eta\:}_{p}^{2}\)=0.620). However, there was no significant main effect of sport type (F(1,25)=1.749; p=0.198; \(\:{\eta\:}_{p}^{2}\)=0.065), nor a significant interaction between format and sport (F(1,25)=0.444; p = 0.511; \(\:{\eta\:}_{p}^{2}\)=0.017). Specifically, significant differences were observed between formats, with 1v1 showing significantly greater values than 2v2 (17.9 vs. 14.4 cpm; p < 0.001; d = 1.254, large effect size).

Fig. 3
figure 3

Bar graphs and confidence intervals showing vigorous physical activity (cpm) across game formats (1v1 and 2v2) and sports (soccer and basketball).

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Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics of motor engagement and enjoyment levels across different conditions, along with the results of the Friedman test. Participants showed greater time spent in slow-easy movements during soccer 2v2 when compared to 1v1 soccer (Z = 2.828, pb [p-value adjusted for Bonferroni] = 0.030, r = 0.555, large effect) and 1v1 basketball (Z = 2.887, pb = 0.024, r = 0.566, large effect). Fast movements were significantly greater in 1v1 basketball comparing to 2v2 soccer (Z = 2.653, pb ​ = 0.048, r = −0.520, large effect) and 2v2 basketball (Z = 2.972, pb = 0.018, r = 0.583, large effect). Moreover, 1v1 soccer also exhibited significantly greater fast movement than 2v2 soccer (Z = 2.887, pb ​ = 0.024, r = 0.566, large effect) and 2v2 basketball (Z = 2.653, pb = 0.048, r = 0.520, large effect).

For enjoyment levels in the construct of attraction, pairwise comparisons revealed that 2v2 basketball showed significantly greater values than 1v1 soccer (Z = 3.000, pb = 0.018, r = 0.588, large effect) and 1v1 basketball (Z = 2.646, pb ​ = 0.048, r = 0.519, large effect). For the case of preference, 2v2 basketball presented significantly greater scores than 1v1 soccer (Z = 3.217, pb = 0.006, r = 0.631, large effect). For the case of environment, 2v2 basketball presented significantly greater scores than 1v1 soccer (Z = 3.500, pb ​ < 0.006, r = 0.686, large effect). In the case of social engagement, 2v2 basketball presented significantly greater scores than 1v1 soccer (Z = 3.350, pb < 0.006, r = 0.657, significant) and 2v2 soccer (Z = 2.919, pb = 0.024, r = 0.572, significant).

Table 2 Mean ± standard deviation of motor engagement and enjoyment levels across different conditions, along with the results of the Friedman test.
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Discussion

This study investigated the effects of different small-sided game formats (1v1 vs. 2v2) and sport types (basketball vs. soccer) on preschool children’s physical activity levels, motor engagement, and enjoyment. Results revealed that 1v1 games promoted higher levels of vigorous physical activity and fast motor movements, suggesting greater physical intensity during individual play. In contrast, 2v2 games led to increased light physical activity and higher ratings of enjoyment, particularly in basketball, where children reported greater attraction, preference, perceived environment, and social engagement. Additionally, moderate physical activity was greater in soccer than in basketball, regardless of game format.

Light PA was significantly higher in 2v2 formats compared to 1v1, regardless of sport, suggesting that games with teammates may promote more lower-intensity movements. Conversely, vigorous PA was significantly greater in 1v1 games, indicating that individual play elicited more intense physical exertion. Moderate PA, however, was significantly influenced by sport type, with soccer producing higher levels than basketball across both formats. Although no comparisons have been found in this age group and population, these findings partially align with previous research on youth, which suggests that smaller games increase intense actions and demands associated with running37. This evidence may be explained by the individual roles players assume during the games. For example, a previous study17 involving children aged 7 to 9 found that 3v3 games—the smallest format examined—resulted in a higher number of passes, dribbles, and shots compared to 5v5 and 7v7 formats, which involved more participants. In 1v1 situations, the constant requirement to be actively involved in the play may further explain the increased movement demands. Such evidence was also observed in handball games for under-13 boys and girls25.

The main findings related to motor engagement confirm the evidence observed on PA levels indicating that 1v1 formats, regardless of sport type, elicited significantly more fast movements, whereas 2v2 soccer promoted greater slow-to-easy movements. These results suggest that smaller games (1v1) are associated with greater individual involvement and higher vigorous activity, whereas 2v2 formats are associated with slightly higher light-intensity activity and more slow-easy movements. Our results—despite limited directly comparable literature in this age group—are consistent with evidence from older children and youth, where 1v1 small-sided formats are often associated with higher exercise intensity and reduced inactivity owing to greater individual ball involvement in constrained spaces38. In preschool populations, physical activity tends to be sporadic and intermittent, characterized by short bursts of movement across intensities rather than prolonged continuous efforts39. This inherent intermittent bursts of activity in preschool activity patterns may partly explain why the 1v1 format elicited more vigorous activity in our sample. Because we did not measure attentional or cognitive processes, this remains a speculative mechanism, and future work should directly probe developmental moderating factors (e.g., self-regulation, sustained attention). In contrast, 2v2 games may introduce more complexity, promoting slower but more socially interactive behaviors. This is consistent with the physical activity data in our study, where 1v1 games resulted in significantly greater vigorous PA levels, while 2v2 formats were associated with slightly higher light PA.

The moderate movements category did not differ across conditions. A plausible explanation is that, during structured small-sided play at this age, children’s behavior tends to oscillate between brief, high-intensity fast actions when in immediate ball contact and lower-intensity slow-easy behaviors during positioning or recovery; the intermediate “moderate” actions are comparatively transitional and short-term, yielding little accumulated time and reduced sensitivity to contextual manipulations (sport or format). This interpretation is consistent with the OSRAC-P and with evidence that preschoolers’ physical activity is typically intermittent and burst-like rather than sustained at a steady moderate pace22,39.

The analysis of enjoyment revealed that the 2v2 basketball format consistently produced higher ratings across all enjoyment domains—attraction, preference, environment, and social engagement—compared to 1v1 formats, particularly 1v1 soccer. These findings suggest that preschool children showed more positive emotional and social experiences from cooperative game formats. This aligns with prior research as those developed in 285 students which showed cooperative games led to higher perceived enjoyment40. One plausible explanation is that 2v2 games introduce early elements of teamwork and peer interaction, which can be appropriate and rewarding at this stage. The higher enjoyment levels observed in 2v2 basketball may also reflect the simplified scoring structure (e.g., using floor circles as hoops), which could have made success more attainable and the environment more engaging. However, we did not directly examine the scoring method as an independent factor in moderating enjoyment.

The current study is not without limitations. The sample size was relatively small and comprised only male preschool children from the same age range, limiting the generalizability of findings to girls and other age groups. Another limitation of this study is that only male preschoolers were included. This restricts the generalizability of our findings, particularly given evidence that boys and girls may differ in PA behaviors, motor development trajectories, and play preferences13. Accordingly, our results should be interpreted cautiously, and future research should include balanced samples to test whether these effects extend to girls. A further limitation of this study is the very short intervention period, which constrains the ecological validity of our findings. Because participants only experienced the game formats for a limited number of sessions, it remains uncertain whether the observed differences reflect stable behavioral adaptations or short-term novelty effects. Previous research41 emphasizes that interventions lasting less than about 8 weeks may be particularly vulnerable to novelty effects, reducing confidence in their longer-term impact. In addition, although accelerometers provided objective PA data, they may not fully capture the sport-specific actions characteristic of small-sided games. Another contextual limitation is that the intervention was conducted under controlled preschool class conditions, with structured teacher feedback and researcher oversight. Such structured environments may not reflect typical free-play or community contexts, where supervision, space, and group dynamics differ, thereby limiting generalizability. Future studies should aim to replicate these findings in larger and more diverse samples, including female participants and children from different educational and cultural contexts. Longitudinal designs are also needed to examine how game formats influence not only immediate PA and enjoyment but also long-term motor development, social skills, and attitudes toward physical activity. Despite these limitations, these preliminary findings suggest that adjusted game formats—particularly 1v1 for promoting vigorous activity and 2v2 for enhancing enjoyment—may be appropriate for this age group. The design of such activities can significantly influence children’s participation levels, highlighting the need for teachers and educators to be mindful when selecting formats.

Conclusions

This study provides information on how ball game formats may influence preschool children’s physical activity levels, motor engagement, and enjoyment during classes. While the findings suggest that 1v1 formats can promote more vigorous movement and 2v2 games, particularly in basketball, may support greater enjoyment and social interaction, these conclusions are preliminary and should not be generalized to all preschool children or broader educational contexts. Nonetheless, the results observed indicate that the structure of physical activities could play a role in modifying young children’s engagement and experiences.