Introduction

Africa, with its abundant natural resources and diverse ecosystems, is at a crucial juncture in the fight for environmental sustainability. The continent faces a range of urgent environmental challenges, from expansive savannas to dense rainforests, that require immediate action (Agbo et al. 2021; Afzal et al. 2022; Rasoulinezhad and Taghizadeh-Hesary, 2022). Deforestation is a major threat, primarily driven by agricultural expansion, which not only reduces biodiversity but also accelerates climate change by releasing stored carbon into the atmosphere. Additionally, Africa’s vulnerability to climate change is evident, with extreme weather events becoming more frequent and severe (Ye and Rasoulinezhad, 2023; Saba et al. 2023). Rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and more frequent droughts threaten livelihoods and exacerbate food insecurity across the continent. Although Africa contributes a relatively small share of global greenhouse gas emissions, it suffers disproportionately from the impacts (Yoshino et al. 2021; Taghizadeh-Hesary et al. 2022; Shehu et al. 2022; Zhao and Rasoulinezhad, 2023). Biodiversity loss, exacerbated by poaching, habitat destruction, and unsustainable resource exploitation, further complicates these issues, endangering unique species and disrupting ecosystems vital for human well-being (Ayesu, 2023).

In Africa, the pursuit of sustainable development goals represents both a formidable challenge and an urgent imperative. Since the inception of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2000, the continent has made notable strides towards their attainment. Yet, the current pace of progress falls short of the ambitious targets set for 2030 (Royo et al. 2022; Filho et al. 2023). Recognizing the multifaceted nature of sustainable development, African nations grapple with a myriad of obstacles on the path to prosperity. Chief among these challenges are conflicts, which disrupt communities, undermine governance structures, and impede development efforts. Additionally, insufficient investment in key sectors and limited market access opportunities further exacerbate the struggle to achieve the SDGs. Addressing these barriers requires a concerted effort and significant financial investment. Africa’s financing gap for the SDGs stands at a staggering USD 1.6 trillion by 2030, necessitating an annual injection of USD 194 billion (OECD, 2023). This funding is vital for bolstering infrastructure, improving healthcare and education, fostering inclusive economic growth, and safeguarding the environment.

In the quest for sustainability in Africa, education emerges as a linchpin for transformative change and inclusive development. Beyond being a fundamental human right, education serves as a catalyst for socioeconomic progress, empowering individuals, and entire communities to realize their full potential. Over the past six decades, Africa has made significant strides in expanding access to education, with primary school completion rates witnessing a commendable increase from 52% to 67% between 2000 and 2022 (UNICEF, 2024). Moreover, there has been a notable uptick in the enrollment of girls and students in tertiary education, signaling a growing commitment to gender equality and higher learning opportunities. However, despite these advancements, the quality of education remains a pressing concern across the continent. Many educational systems grapple with issues of inadequate infrastructure, shortage of qualified teachers, and disparities in access, particularly in rural and marginalized communities. These challenges perpetuate inequalities and hinder the full realization of the potential that education holds as a driver of sustainable development. Addressing these shortcomings requires a concerted effort to improve the quality and relevance of education at all levels. Investing in teacher training, updating curricula to reflect current societal needs, and leveraging technology for inclusive learning are essential steps towards enhancing educational outcomes. Furthermore, promoting equitable access to education for all, regardless of gender, socioeconomic status, or geographic location, is paramount. Empowering individuals with knowledge and skills not only fosters economic growth but also cultivates a sense of environmental stewardship and social responsibility, laying the foundation for a sustainable future.

Poverty alleviation stands as a critical component of sustainability in Africa, where nearly half of the population in sub-Saharan Africa lives below the poverty line. With Africa being the poorest continent on Earth, characterized by extreme poverty rates exceeding 30% in 23 out of the world’s 28 poorest countries, urgent action is needed (Mallek et al. 2024). Utilizing a multifaceted approach, effective poverty alleviation policies must prioritize wealth redistribution, job creation, and efficient fiscal measures. Through targeted social programs, progressive taxation, and equitable resource allocation, governments can narrow the wealth gap and provide essential support to vulnerable populations. Investment in education, vocational training, and entrepreneurship is crucial for equipping individuals with the skills and opportunities needed to access sustainable livelihoods (You et al. 2020). Additionally, fostering an enabling environment for job creation and entrepreneurship, alongside efficient fiscal policies, will be instrumental in building resilient and inclusive economies, ultimately paving the way for sustainable development and shared prosperity in Africa (Kakeu et al. 2024).

The primary academic goal of this research is to evaluate the impact of poverty and education on the Sustainable Development Index in African economies. The motivation for this study arises from the need to identify effective education development and poverty alleviation policies that promote sustainable development in African countries. By exploring the relationship between poverty, education, and sustainable development, this study seeks to offer valuable insights into the most effective strategies for achieving long-term economic, social, and environmental progress in Africa. Through rigorous analysis and empirical research, the aim is to inform policymakers and stakeholders about the key drivers of sustainable development and to guide the creation of targeted interventions that address the unique challenges faced by African nations.

While this research aims to provide valuable insights into the impacts of education and poverty on the sustainability of African countries, it is important to acknowledge certain limitations that may affect the reliability and generalizability of the findings. One significant limitation is the availability and quality of data, which can vary significantly across African nations. Some countries may lack comprehensive data on key variables such as education attainment, poverty levels, and sustainability indicators, making it challenging to conduct robust quantitative analysis. Additionally, political instability in certain regions may further hinder data collection efforts and compromise the reliability of quantitative data. As a result, the analysis may be constrained in its ability to provide a comprehensive assessment of the relationship between education, poverty, and sustainability across all African countries. Despite these limitations, the insights generated from this research can still offer valuable practical implications for policymakers and stakeholders. By highlighting the magnitude of the impacts of education and poverty on sustainability within African countries, this research can inform the development of targeted interventions and policy initiatives aimed at addressing these challenges and promoting more inclusive and resilient pathways to sustainable development.

The research is structured in a systematic manner, commencing with a thorough review of existing literature to establish the theoretical framework and contextual background concerning the interplay of education, poverty, and sustainability within African contexts. Following this, it delves into the discussion of African sustainability and the various channels through which education and poverty influence this sustainability. Subsequent sections detail the data sources employed and the model utilized for analysis. The findings derived from this analysis are then presented, highlighting significant insights and empirical evidence regarding the impact of education and poverty on sustainability across African economies. Finally, the paper concludes by summarizing the main findings, discussing their implications for policy and practice, and suggesting avenues for future research to deepen our understanding of sustainable development dynamics in Africa.

Literature recognition

Sustainable development in Africa

Sustainable development in Africa has been extensively studied, with researchers examining various aspects of economic, social, and environmental sustainability across the continent. Scholars like Bartniczak and Raszkowski (2019), Rasoulinezhad (2020), Phung et al. (2023) and Guo et al. (2023) highlight the importance of a holistic approach to sustainable development, advocating for strategies that balance economic growth with social inclusion and environmental stewardship. Additionally, Mvile and Bishoge (2024) emphasize the role of governance and institutional frameworks in achieving sustainable development outcomes in Africa, noting the need for effective governance structures to ensure equitable resource allocation and participatory decision-making. Furthermore, studies by Gyimah et al. (2023) underscore the importance of addressing Africa’s unique challenges, such as poverty, inequality, and environmental degradation, through context-specific policies and interventions tailored to the continent’s diverse socio-economic and environmental contexts.

Educational challenges and barriers in Africa

In Africa, educational challenges and barriers significantly hinder sustainable development and inclusive growth. Research by Mhlongo et al. (2023) highlights persistent disparities in access to quality education, particularly among marginalized populations such as girls, children in rural areas, and those from low-income households. Delprato and Frola (2022) emphasize the complex nature of these educational challenges, including inadequate infrastructure, a shortage of qualified teachers, and insufficient funding, all of which collectively undermine learning outcomes and hinder socio-economic progress. Additionally, political instability and conflict in certain regions exacerbate educational disparities by disrupting schooling and depriving children of their right to education (Roby et al. 2016). Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive approach that tackles supply-side constraints, such as improving infrastructure and teacher training, as well as demand-side factors, such as reducing socio-economic barriers to schooling. Furthermore, Marshall et al. (2020) stress the importance of fostering partnerships between governments, civil society, and the private sector to mobilize resources and implement evidence-based policies that promote inclusive and equitable education for all in Africa.

Poverty challenge in Africa

Poverty remains one of the most pressing challenges facing Africa, with profound implications for sustainable development and human well-being. Research by Ochi (2023) underscores the magnitude of poverty in the region, where nearly half of the population lives below the poverty line. Moreover, studies by Janz et al. (2023) highlight the multidimensional nature of poverty in Africa, encompassing not only income deprivation but also limited access to basic services such as healthcare, education, and clean water. Additionally, structural factors such as high levels of unemployment, income inequality, and limited economic opportunities further perpetuate poverty cycles across the continent (Baloach et al. 2020). Moreover, climate change and environmental degradation exacerbate poverty by undermining agricultural productivity, exacerbating food insecurity, and increasing the vulnerability of marginalized communities (Appiah-Otoo et al. 2022). Addressing poverty in Africa requires a multifaceted approach that combines targeted social interventions, inclusive economic growth strategies, and sustainable development policies. Furthermore, efforts to eradicate poverty must be grounded in principles of social justice, equity, and human rights, ensuring that the most vulnerable populations are prioritized and empowered to participate fully in the development process (Douglas, 2018).

Gap in literature

In conclusion, the literature review underscores the complex and interrelated challenges facing Africa in its pursuit of sustainable development. While scholars and organizations have extensively examined the issues of sustainable development, educational barriers, and poverty challenges in Africa, there remains a notable gap in understanding the intersectionality of these factors and their collective impact on development outcomes. While some studies have explored the individual dimensions of sustainable development, education, and poverty, there is a lack of comprehensive research that investigates how these factors interact and influence each other within the African context.

Theory and conceptual argument

Africa’s journey towards sustainable development has been impeded by a multitude of challenges, including conflicts, inadequate investment, limited market access, supply-side constraints, unsustainable debt burdens, declining official development assistance, and the devastating impact of HIV/AIDS. Despite the global commitment to sustainable development goals, Africa continues to lag behind, struggling to make significant progress since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio in 1992. The urgency of transitioning towards sustainability is underscored by alarming statistics, such as the toll of air pollution, which claimed 1.1 million lives in Africa in 2019 alone, with household and ambient pollution emerging as leading risk factors. Waste generation poses another significant challenge, with the volume of waste in sub-Saharan Africa doubling between 2012 and 2016 and projected to further increase by 2030. Moreover, the continent’s rapid growth in CO2 emissions highlights the pressing need for concerted efforts to mitigate environmental degradation and foster sustainable development across Africa. Education and poverty alleviation stand as potent catalysts for steering African countries towards sustainability. By investing in education, particularly for marginalized populations, governments can empower individuals with the knowledge and skills needed to contribute meaningfully to economic growth, environmental stewardship, and social cohesion. Quality education empowers individuals with the knowledge and skills essential for adopting sustainable practices, devising innovative solutions to pressing challenges, and actively engaging in the green economy. By instilling environmental literacy and awareness, education encourages responsible behaviors that minimize environmental impact and promote conservation efforts. Additionally, critical thinking and problem-solving skills cultivated through education enable individuals to pioneer creative solutions to environmental issues such as climate change and pollution. Education also equips individuals with the technical expertise and entrepreneurial acumen necessary to thrive in green sectors like renewable energy and sustainable agriculture. Furthermore, education nurtures critical thinking, heightens awareness, and fosters empowerment within communities, empowering them to advocate for sustainable policies and demand accountability from decision-makers. Through education, individuals develop the analytical skills and understanding necessary to assess the socio-environmental implications of policies and initiatives. This enhanced awareness enables communities to actively participate in public discourse, engage with policymakers, and advocate for initiatives that prioritize sustainability and address pressing environmental concerns. Concurrently, poverty alleviation initiatives address the root causes of environmental degradation and social inequality, thereby promoting resilience and inclusive development. By providing vulnerable populations with access to resources, economic opportunities, and social protection, poverty alleviation efforts create the conditions for individuals and communities to pursue sustainable livelihoods and enhance their well-being.

Methodology

This section outlines the research methodology and data description used to investigate the impacts of education and poverty on the sustainability of African countries. The empirical model focuses on the 15 largest African economies: Egypt, Nigeria, South Africa, Algeria, Ethiopia, Morocco, Kenya, Angola, Tanzania, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Congo, Uganda, Tunisia, and Cameroon, covering the period from 1999 to 2019 to ensure data availability. The starting year of 1999 coincides with the Regional Consultative Meeting on Sustainable Development in Africa held in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire, which marked the beginning of sustainable initiatives on the continent. The end year of 2019 is chosen due to the significant economic impact of the pandemic, which triggered a major economic downturn since 2020. The model uses a multidimensional sustainable development index, which includes a geometric average of variables such as green energy deployment, access to freshwater, CO2 emissions, and waste generation. Explanatory variables include the population with tertiary education and the poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines. Control variables comprise trade volume, ICT development, and GDP per capita. Table 1 provides a comprehensive overview of the variables used in the analysis.

Table 1 Variables’ description.
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In Table 2, we calculate the correlation coefficients between the variables to assess the presence of collinearity issues. The correlation values indicate the strength and direction of the linear relationship between pairs of variables. Upon examination, it is observed that the correlation values are not significant, confirming the absence of severe correlation relationships among the variables. This suggests that the variables included in the analysis are relatively independent of each other and do not exhibit strong interdependence, mitigating concerns regarding multicollinearity.

Table 2 Correlation evaluation.
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Furthermore, it is crucial to delineate the expected signs of the independent variables on the sustainable development index in African countries. The population with tertiary education is expected to exert a positive influence on sustainable development within African countries. This expectation stems from the recognition that higher levels of education empower individuals with the knowledge, critical thinking abilities, and technical expertise needed to embrace sustainable practices and drive positive environmental change. Educated individuals are better equipped to understand the intricate interconnections between human activities and environmental impacts, fostering a heightened awareness of environmental issues and a sense of responsibility towards sustainable resource management. Furthermore, tertiary education fosters innovation and creativity, enabling individuals to devise novel solutions to complex environmental challenges such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and resource depletion. Conversely, the poverty headcount ratio is expected to exhibit a negative relationship with the sustainable development index, as higher levels of poverty are associated with limited access to resources, reduced capacity for environmental stewardship, and heightened vulnerability to environmental degradation. Trade volume may have a mixed impact on sustainable development, as increased trade can foster economic growth and resource mobilization, but may also exacerbate environmental pressures through increased production and consumption. ICT development is likely to positively influence sustainable development by enhancing access to information, facilitating communication and collaboration, and enabling the adoption of sustainable technologies and practices. Lastly, GDP per capita is anticipated to yield a positive impact on sustainable development across African nations. This expectation arises from the premise that higher income levels provide the financial resources necessary to bolster investments in critical areas such as environmental protection, infrastructure development, and social welfare programs. With increased economic prosperity, countries are better positioned to allocate funds towards initiatives aimed at mitigating environmental degradation, conserving natural resources, and promoting sustainable land use practices. Moreover, higher GDP per capita enables governments to invest in the development of resilient infrastructure systems, including renewable energy projects, sustainable transportation networks, and climate-resilient urban planning, which are essential for adapting to the impacts of climate change and promoting long-term sustainability. Additionally, elevated income levels facilitate the implementation of social welfare programs that enhance access to education, healthcare, and basic services, thereby fostering social equity and reducing vulnerability to environmental risks.

To assess the influence of factors such as the population with tertiary education, poverty headcount ratio, trade volume, ICT development, and GDP per capita on the sustainable development index using econometric panel data analysis, a systematic approach is imperative. First, meticulous attention will be given to addressing potential multicollinearity issues using the variance inflation factor (VIF) methodology. Following this, the presence of cross-sectional dependency among the countries within the panel will be examined through the Breusch-Pagan (1980) and Pesaran (2021) tests. After addressing these concerns, the stationarity of the variables will be assessed using Pesaran’s (2007) CIPS and ADF tests. Long-term relationships between the variables will be explored using the Westerlund (2007) technique. Coefficients will be evaluated using the autoregressive-distributed lag (ARDL) model, and empirical analysis will be facilitated through the application of the pooled mean group (PMG) estimation approach. The core econometric equation within the ARDL framework (p, q, q, q…, q) is expressed as Eq. (1). In the aforementioned equation, SDIND denotes the sustainable development index, whereas T, \(\mu\), and \(\varepsilon\) represent the vector of independent variables, country-specific fixed effects, and residual term, respectively.

$${{SDIND}}_{{it}}=\mathop{\sum }\limits_{j=1}^{p}{\theta }_{{ij}}{{SDIND}}_{i,t-j}+\mathop{\sum }\limits_{j=0}^{q}{\alpha }_{{ij}}{T}_{i,t-j}+{\mu }_{i}+{\varepsilon }_{{it}}$$
(1)

Analysis and findings

The empirical findings are presented in Section 5 as follows: Firstly, the results derived from the variance inflation factor (VIF) method are depicted in Table 3. These findings suggest that there are no indications of multicollinearity present within our empirical model.

Table 3 Outcomes of the test of multicollinearity problem.
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The subsequent stage involves a thorough exploration of cross-sectional dependency (CD) that may exist within our panel due to interconnectedness and socioeconomic relationships among African countries. The results of this investigation are presented in Table 4, showcasing the outcomes obtained from both the Breusch-Pagan (1980) and Pesaran (2021) analyses. The findings unequivocally validate the presence of cross-sectional dependency within the cohort of advanced countries.

Table 4 Cross-sectional dependency exploration among series.
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The subsequent phase of the empirical analysis entails conducting the panel unit root test, known as the CIPS test. The findings of this assessment are detailed in Table 5, revealing that the orders of integration of the variables differ from 0 and 1.

Table 5 Cross-sectional IPS and ADF approaches outcome.
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In the subsequent phase of our analytical inquiry, we delve into assessing co-integration relationships among the variables utilizing the Westerlund (2007) methodology. The outcomes of this evaluation are presented in Table 6, and upon scrutinizing the attained p-values, a clear conclusion can be drawn. The results strongly indicate that the variables demonstrate co-integration over the long term.

Table 6 Outcomes of the cointegration test.
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After completing the preliminary tests, we have proceeded to utilize the ARDL-PMG (0,0,0,1,1) approach. The results, detailing the signs and magnitudes of the coefficients in both the short-run and long-run, are comprehensively presented in Table 7.

Table 7 Coefficients estimation outcomes.
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The findings reveal a significant relationship between the population with tertiary education and sustainability in African countries. Specifically, a 1% increase in the population with tertiary education leads to a 0.07% improvement in sustainability in the short term and a more substantial 0.32% increase in the long term. This indicates that investing in higher education can significantly benefit sustainable development initiatives in African nations.

Furthermore, the estimation confirms a pronounced negative impact of poverty on sustainability in African countries. Specifically, a 1% increase in the poverty ratio is associated with a significant decrease in sustainability, resulting in reductions of 0.43% in the short term and 0.66% in the long term. This highlights the crucial role of poverty alleviation in promoting sustainable development. Poverty impedes access to resources, healthcare, education, and opportunities, exacerbating social inequalities and environmental degradation. In the short term, higher poverty rates create immediate challenges in meeting basic needs and accessing essential services, hindering progress toward sustainability goals. In the long term, persistent poverty perpetuates cycles of deprivation, limiting economic growth and continuing environmental degradation, thereby undermining prospects for sustainable development.

The analysis further highlights the relationship between trade volume and sustainability in African countries, revealing a notable decrease in sustainability associated with increased trade volume. Specifically, a 1% increase in trade volume corresponds to reductions of 0.09% in the short term and 0.19% in the long term. This finding suggests that trade liberalization policies alone may not serve as significant drivers of sustainability in Africa. Several factors may contribute to this result. Firstly, increased trade volume may exacerbate environmental degradation through intensified resource extraction, pollution, and habitat destruction, especially if regulatory frameworks are inadequate. Secondly, trade may disproportionately benefit certain sectors or regions, leading to social inequalities and marginalization of vulnerable populations. Additionally, reliance on export-oriented industries may hinder efforts to diversify economies and promote sustainable development strategies.

The major findings affirm the significant positive impact of ICT development on sustainable progress in Africa, while also indicating that GDP per capita serves as a barrier to sustainability in African countries. The positive association between ICT development and sustainability can be attributed to several factors. Firstly, ICT infrastructure facilitates access to information, education, and healthcare, empowering individuals and communities to make informed decisions and participate more effectively in sustainable development initiatives. Additionally, digital technologies enable innovation and efficiency improvements across various sectors, contributing to economic growth while minimizing resource consumption and environmental impact. Moreover, ICTs enhance communication and collaboration, enabling stakeholders to coordinate efforts and implement more holistic and inclusive sustainability strategies. Conversely, the negative relationship between GDP per capita and sustainability may stem from patterns of resource consumption, environmental degradation, and social inequality associated with higher levels of economic development. In many cases, rapid economic growth driven by extractive industries or unsustainable practices may undermine environmental conservation efforts and exacerbate social disparities, ultimately impeding progress towards long-term sustainability.

Next, it’s crucial to verify the suitability of the empirical model to assess the reliability of the findings. To achieve this, diagnostic evaluations, detailed in Table 8, are employed to gauge the appropriateness of the empirical model. The obtained p-values from these diagnostic tests indicate that the empirical model does not exhibit issues such as autocorrelation, heteroscedasticity, or non-normality, confirming its suitability.

Table 8 Diagnostic evaluation.
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Finally, we switch the dependent variable from the sustainable development index to carbon emissions and reevaluate the coefficients of the variables. The results of this robustness analysis are outlined in Table 9. As per the findings, education serves as an incentive for reducing carbon dioxide emissions, whereas poverty acts as a catalyst for emitting carbon dioxide in African economies. These results align with the earlier findings in Table 7, affirming the reliability of the paper’s results.

Table 9 Robustness discussion.
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Conclusion and practical policies

The study examines the impact of education, poverty, trade volume, ICT development, and GDP per capita on sustainability in the 15 largest African economies from 1999 to 2019. The results show that higher tertiary education rates positively correlate with sustainability, indicating that investments in education can enhance sustainable development. Conversely, increased poverty rates are linked to decreased sustainability, underscoring the importance of poverty alleviation for sustainable progress. Additionally, higher trade volumes are associated with reduced sustainability, highlighting the limitations of trade liberalization policies in promoting sustainability. ICT development significantly positively impacts sustainability, while higher GDP per capita is associated with lower sustainability, possibly due to unsustainable consumption patterns and social inequalities.

Policy implications for African countries to promote sustainable development, focusing on education and poverty alleviation, can be multifaceted and targeted. Firstly, advocacy and gender-friendly policies are essential to ensure equal access to education for all, addressing barriers that disproportionately affect marginalized groups, particularly women and girls. Implementing measures to eliminate gender disparities in education can enhance human capital development and contribute to long-term sustainable progress. Additionally, efforts to develop e-businesses and promote sustainable entrepreneurship can stimulate economic growth while minimizing environmental impact, creating opportunities for sustainable job creation and income generation. Attracting foreign investment specifically for sustainable education and employment initiatives can provide much-needed resources and expertise to support capacity-building and innovation in these areas.

In advancing the scope of future research, there is a pressing need to explore and analyze the multifaceted aspects of sustainable development within various African regions. Such investigations should encompass a comprehensive examination of the socio-economic, environmental, and governance dimensions, shedding light on the unique challenges and opportunities faced by each locality. Furthermore, it is imperative to undertake a rigorous assessment of the efficacy and impact of implementing sustainable regional agreements across Africa. This involves scrutinizing the policy frameworks, institutional capacities, and stakeholder engagement mechanisms involved in translating these agreements into tangible outcomes on the ground.