Discursive practices in translating political discourse: insights from white papers on China-US economic and trade frictions

Abstract

Discursive practice in political discourse translation is an underexplored research area from the perspective of critical discourse analysis. To fill this gap, this research proposes a framework including national consciousness, intersubjectivity, and social context to investigate the discursive production, and distribution of translated white papers on China-US economic and trade friction issued by China, and its discursive consumption on social media. This study applies dual narrative progression theory to analyze the discursive production of the translation, with an emphasis on how these translations construct and express national image and ideology. Furthermore, the approach considers foreign news reports and public stances within the target social context, which covers distribution and consumption in discursive practice. It is shown that the meaning and production of national images are predominantly influenced by national consciousness, and cultural and ideological negotiations exist among translation subjects. Although translated white papers describe China as a defender of national interests and a supporter of dialog, foreign news reports present China with a more unyielding and aggressive stance. This portrayal could influence public perceptions on the issue, and it could also be influenced by those perceptions. This paper reveals that translating political discourse is a form of social practice and highlights the social functions that discursive practice plays in this process.

Introduction

Translation Studies (TS) has shifted from viewing translators merely as converters of language in cross-cultural communication to seeing them as mediators of cultural and ideological differences within a social context (Wang and Munday, 2021, pp. 1–2). This shift is called the cultural and social turn in the TS, which expanded the research scope of this field from micro-analysis to macro-analysis.

Scholars, like Hermans, Bassnett, and Lefevere, have explored ideological mediation in translation, emphasizing the transformative role of translators in shaping identity and ideology (Al-Hejin, 2012, p. 316). However, gaps remain in understanding how ideologies are translated, spread, and disseminated, especially in political contexts where translation interacts with power and manipulation. Thus, Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) provides an insightful framework for studying how image, culture, power, and ideology are shaped behind discourse in translation. Drawing on the perspective of CDA and Fairclough’s discourse research approach, this paper proposes an analytical framework for the study of political discourse translation. This study will focus on the investigation of the translation of China’s white papers under the background of China-US economic and trade friction.

China’s government white papers are authoritative policy documents issued by the central government to introduce China’s policy positions, principles, and achievements in different fields, covering politics, economy, diplomacy, etc. So, the purpose of white papers on China-US economic and trade friction is to clarify facts, demonstrate China’s stance on trade friction with the US, and pursue reasonable solutions. Since 2018, the economic and trade tensions between China and the US have significantly influenced international relations. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the production, and distribution of translated white papers on China-US economic and trade friction issued by China and the consumption of videos related to China-US Trade Friction on social media. Specifically, we examine two distinct forms of media content: news reports, which directly disseminate the translations of white papers, and video comments, which discuss the broader topic of China-US economic and trade friction. By investigating how mainstream media reports on translated white papers and how audiences respond through their comments on related videos, we can gain insights into how translations are received, and interpreted, and how its distribution influences or is influenced by public opinions. This paper will present a comprehensive understanding of the role of translation as a social practice in international communication.

Employing the framework of discursive practice proposed from the perspective of CDA and integrating dual narrative progression theory, this study aims to explore the following research questions: (1) How are national image and ideological differences discursively constructed and negotiated in the translation of white papers? (2) How are translated white papers represented by news reports within the social context of the target language? (3) What stances do target audiences develop about China-US trade friction during the same time span as the collected news reports?

Literature review

Despite advancements in TS, there persists a predominant focus on linguistic or textual analysis, leaving investigations into social factors. Within the linguistic approach, textual analysis is further divided into parallel text analysis (Núñez, 2022; Afzaal and Du, 2023) and comparative analysis of different translations (Vid and Žagar-Šoštarić, 2021). Because it ignores the larger socio-cultural background and the considerable influence translation has on social dynamics, the limited emphasis frequently masks the complex link between translation and society. Scholars have explored how external elements such as power, ideology, and social institutions affect translation as TS has evolved via linguistic, cultural, and social shifts (Schäffner and Bassnett, 2010, pp. 10–21). Recognizing translation’s multifaceted nature, this shift in perspective underscores the importance of social elements, the agency of translators, and the extensive reach of translation’s social influence, transcending the boundaries of its internal mechanisms (Angelelli, 2012, p. 2; Wang and Feng, 2018, p. 247). In the area of TS and CDA, common ground is found in the manipulation theory of the functional school within TS, which emphasizes the norms and constraints regulating the production and acceptance of translations (Hermans, 1985). This perspective resonates with CDA, which also considers production, distribution, and consumption as fundamental aspects of discursive practice. In the field of CDA, its analysis examines written, spoken, or visual language critically, aiming to reveal power relationships, social hierarchies, and ideologies embedded in discourse (Fairclough, 1989, p. 23). CDA views discourse as a form of social practice, shaping and being shaped by social reality (Fairclough and Wodak, 1997; Fairclough and Fairclough, 2012). From Fairclough’s perspective, discourse practice, which connects text to society, is crucial in understanding how discourse impacts power inequalities and ideological control (Fairclough, 2010, pp. 56-57). At present, TS plays a crucial role in the development of political discourse research. Among scholars in TS, Schäffner has conducted valuable research highlighting the correlation between translation and political discourse analysis, including CDA (Schäffner, 2004; 2012). Furthermore, interdisciplinary research in CDA and TS has been conducted on topics such as news translation (Kuo and Nakamura, 2005; Munday, 2007; Al-Hejin, 2012; Pan, 2015; Kim, 2017; Ping and Wang, 2024), conference interpretation (Schäffner, 2015; Wang and Feng, 2018; Wang and Munday, 2021), and political discourse (Kang, 2007; Schäffner, Tcaciuc and Tesseur, 2014; Li and Xu, 2018; Hu and Li, 2022; Modestus, 2024). Both CDA and TS concur on the importance of analyzing texts considering the ideological background behind text production, distribution and consumption. In political discourse translation, which is heavily laden with power and ideology, further interdisciplinary research that transcends sentence-level analysis is needed to comprehensively understand the entire process of discursive practice from a CDA perspective. In terms of political discourse translation, translation often involves dual narratives due to the inherently ideological nature of political texts. According to the Dual Narrative Progression Theory (DNPT) proposed by Shen (Shen, 2014), dual narratives include overt narrative referring to the clear, surface-level meaning of a text that the author intends to convey to the audience, and covert narrative representing deeper ideological, cultural, or contextual meanings that influence the audience’s interpretation in more subtle ways (Shen, 2023; Ruan and Shen, 2024). In translation, translators must navigate between maintaining the fidelity of the source text and adapting it to fit the cultural and ideological context of the target audience. Although CDA has been extensively applied in TS, there is a significant research gap concerning the explicit identification and analysis of dual narrative progression in political discourse translation. This study bridges this gap by incorporating Shen’s DNPT into the CDA framework to provide a more comprehensive analysis of political discourse translation, allowing researchers to dig deeper into differences in translated political texts, revealing how translation simultaneously reinforces or transforms the socio-cultural and ideological expression of the source text (ST).

Methods

From the viewpoint of CDA, the connection between discourse and society is indirect. Fairclough’s development of the three-dimensional approach within CDA emphasizes the interplay of language, power, and society, aiming to uncover how language shapes and is shaped by social practice, power relations, and ideologies (Fairclough, 1992). This approach encompasses the analysis of both linguistic features and the social contexts of discursive production, distribution, and consumption. Fairclough’s three-dimensional approach includes text, discursive practice, and social practice. Text, representing written, oral, and multimodal semiosis, is the central focus. Discursive practice, involving text production, distribution, and consumption, forms the outer dimension. The third dimension, social practice, explores the interaction between discourse, ideology, and power, where discourse serves as a channel for the production of ideologies and the negotiation of social power dynamics (Fairclough, 1992, p. 73).

Analytically, the three-dimensional approach involves three stages: description, interpretation, and explanation. Description entails text analysis, examining vocabulary, grammar, cohesion, and text structure (Fairclough, 1989, p. 109). The second stage probes into discursive practice, explaining individuals’ engagement in text production, distribution, and consumption across diverse social contexts. The third stage explores the explanation of the relationship between discourse and social factors, such as ideology, power, and social structure (Fairclough, 2010, p. 133).

Turning back to the field of TS, translation involves both the translating process and the translated product (Munday, 2007, p. 213). Translators, influenced by social and cultural contexts, make lexical and grammatical choices shaped by the ideology, aims, interests, and objectives of social agents (Schäffner, 2003, pp. 23-41). When it comes to political discourse translation, influenced significantly by political, ideological, social, and cultural factors, it needs a comprehensive analysis of the production, distribution, and consumption of translated texts to understand its function in social practice.

Discursive practice framework for political discourse translation

Based on Fairclough’s perspective that discourse is a form of social practice, this paper regards translation as a form of social practice and tries to propose a discursive practice framework (see Fig. 1) for analyzing political discourse translation to conduct a comprehensive study on production, distribution, and consumption dimensions.

Fig. 1: Discursive practice framework of political discourse translation.

(This framework illustrates the process of political discourse translation as a social practice encompassing discursive production, distribution, and consumption. The arrow indicates the logical direction through which translation participates in social practice. Production is guided by national consciousness, where collaborative efforts of multiple agents (intersubjectivity) negotiate translation strategies and language use for discursive construction. Distribution occurs through media channels, where translated texts are distributed and reinterpreted in target social contexts. Consumption reflects how audiences engage with and reinterpret these texts or related discourse, integrating them into social practices.).

The national translation practice in Fig. 1, exemplified by the translation of white papers, represents a state-initiated translating practice of political discourse. This practice exhibits a strong sense of national consciousness and is propelled by specific purposes in certain social contexts. In order to achieve particular communicative goals, dynamic negotiations among translation subjects take place regarding the selection of discourse strategies, the construction of meaning, and the portrayal of images. The translated text, distributed and represented through the news media, undergoes consumption within a specific social context. Audiences, influenced by social factors within their respective social contexts, form divergent positions and stances regarding the meaning and image construction of the translated text and related topics. This, in turn, leads to the recontextualization of related events and the participation of translation in social practice. Given that studies of political discourse within the field of TS have not received sufficient investigation, the proposed discursive practice framework of “national consciousness, intersubjectivity, and social context” provides a viable analytical tool for examining discursive practice in political discourse translation.

National consciousness refers to the shared awareness, identity, and sense of belonging among members of a particular nation (Zhao, 2022). Political institutions inherently impose constraints and regulations on behavior, a phenomenon extending to the translation process. Translators operate within the framework of the institution’s overarching goals and intra-institutional procedures (Schäffner et al., 2014, p. 509). As collectivity is one of the characteristics of political discourse translation, the production of translated texts is predominantly shaped by this collective awareness–national consciousness (Lebow, 2016). This is manifested in white paper’s translator selection and training. The selection of translators for white papers in China is stringent, ensuring that only those with the highest qualifications and experience are chosen. Translators are typically required to have a senior professional title, reflecting their expertise in translation. The translator’s training, on the one hand, emphasizes highly on translator’s national consciousness and responsibility. On the other, because of the time limit, it also focuses more on translating accuracy, speed, and ability to effectively convey the official stance of the Chinese government. Also, translators are trained to maintain the integrity of the source text while adapting to the stylistic and cultural expectations of the target text. Moreover, the training process also includes consultations with foreign language experts to ensure the accuracy of technical terms and the appropriateness of idiomatic expressions. This rigorous selection and training process ensures that the translation of white papers accurately reflects China’s policies and positions and effectively communicates them to the global audience, which means that national interests and positions get the priority of the whole translation process.

Intersubjectivity, reflecting a postmodernist perspective, constitutes the philosophical underpinning of CDA(Fairclough et al., 2004, pp. 23–42). Translation is a collaborative, dynamic, and interactive process where multiple subjects, including the original text, translator, and target audience, engage in a shared understanding and interpretation of the translated content (Zhao, 2022). This study recognizes that China’s white papers may contain strategic framing intended to shape international perceptions and advance policy goals. Such framing is not unique to white papers but is a common feature of political discourse. It is not the product of a single entity but rather emerges from the intersubjective dynamics at play during the translation process. So this dimension mainly focuses on cultural and ideological negotiation among translation subjects during the translation of culture and ideology-loaded expression in the ST.

In terms of analysis of national consciousness and intersubjectivity, dual narrative progression theory is adopted. CDA’s research focus ranges from the semantic expression of texts to the discursive construction of social factors embedded in language use. Similarly, political discourse translation is not merely about language conversion; rather, it also includes the negotiation of ideologies, cultural values, and political stances. Consequently, in the dimension of discursive production, white paper translation similarly involves both representation of language use and discursive construction of social factors such as ideology, stance, values, and culture. Language use and social factors interact, collectively shaping the narrative structure of the translated texts. However, CDA lacks theoretical support for the narrative analysis of language use and social factors in political discourse analysis, which is also overlooked in current academic studies. Therefore, to address this theoretical void, the dual narrative progression theory offers a new perspective for CDA’s narrative analysis of discursive production in political discourse translation.

The DNPT posits that texts, especially those in political discourse, carry two simultaneous narrative threads: one that is evident and directly conveyed (the overt narrative), and another that is more subtle and implied (the covert narrative) (Shen, 2014, p. 24). The overt narrative is what readers or audiences initially perceive, while the covert narrative requires a deeper interpretation to be uncovered (Ruan and Shen, 2024, p. 85). This theory is particularly useful in analyzing translations, as it helps to reveal how translators may emphasize one narrative over the other due to cultural, ideological, or political influences. By considering both narratives, a more profound understanding of the text’s meaning, image construction, and ideological embedding will be achieved.

CDA also focuses on broader socio-cultural contexts. In the dimension of social context, the distribution of translated texts in news reports and the consumption of related topics are analyzed. Political discourse translation is intricately related to specific social structures and events, revealing why social actors express themselves in one way rather than another. Furthermore, examining news reports related to translated texts in the social context of the target language elucidates how audiences’ stances and attitudes toward relevant events are influenced.

In the proposed framework of this section, national translation practice, exemplified by white paper translation, embodies the profound interplay and interconnection among national consciousness, intersubjectivity, and social context within political discourse translation. National consciousness and intersubjectivity collectively constitute the discourse production dimension of political discourse translation. Meanwhile, both the distribution of translated texts and consumption of related topics in the target social context have an interactive influence. Moreover, the dual narrative progression theory is adopted to fill the theoretical void of CDA in narrative analysis of political discourse translation, revealing how texts carry both overt and covert narratives influenced by cultural, ideological, and political factors to construct national image or identity. All these concepts intertwine and interact, providing a comprehensive perspective of how political discourse translation plays a role in participating in social practices, reproducing social facts, and constructing social relations.

Data

There are three types of corpus in this study, including a translation corpus of white papers, a news report corpus of white papers, and a corpus of social media comments of China-US economic and trade friction. Examining the translation of white papers on China-US economic and trade friction aims to uncover language representation and construction of national image and stance within narratives of the translated texts. News reports from Western media on the translations of white papers, provide us with insights into dissemination strategies. It helps to identify the focus and biases of foreign media in covering white papers, which in turn may reflect their ideological tendencies. The corpus of social media comments on China-US economic and trade friction enables us to explore the public stance and attitudes towards this issue. To a certain degree, public stance also mirrors the impact and shaping of media distribution of white papers on audience stances and attitudes within social contexts. Moreover, it potentially unveils the interactive relationship between the media’s distributing focus of white papers and the audience’s stance and attitudes.

The Chinese-English translation corpus of two white papers and its translated texts related to China-U.S. trade frictions: The Facts and China’s Position on China-US Trade Friction (September 24, 2018) and China’s Position on the China-US Economic and Trade Consultations (June 2, 2019), released by the State Council Information Office of China. The corpus data is processed by the corpus analysis toolkit AntConc and Tag Ant for processing and annotation. In terms of procedures, the original texts are initially tagged and annotated by TagAnt 1.2.0, followed by subsequent processing and analysis using AntConc 3.5.8. Analysis of this corpus mainly focuses on the production of white papers’ translation and representation of transitivity between ST and TT.

In terms of distribution of white papers, news reports are collected from mainstream news websites—New York Times, CNN, CNBC, Foxbusiness, CBSnews, USTR, Reuters, and Bloomberg—spanning the period from June 2019 to January 15, 2020. This time span starts with the issuance date of the first white paper and ends up with the date of signing the initial phase agreement in China-US economic and trade cooperation. Due to the limited news reports on the white papers, a news corpus of 9484 tokens has been built. AntConc3.5.8 is used to generate frequency lists, keywords, and collocations of the news corpus, thereby analyzing the meaning orientation and image construction of China in news reports.

Regarding the consumption of the issue of China-U.S. economic and trade friction, 13,877 comments related to videos discussing the friction from social media platforms, specifically Facebook and YouTube, are extracted. This study narrows down the comments to those originating from individual profiles of English-speaking countries. The use of pronouns, such as “we”, and other linguistic markers that indicate the stance-taking of commentators is also considered in data filtering to ensure representativeness. Subsequently, 407 comments from this subset that are deemed most relevant to the discourse on China-US economic and trade friction are selected. By categorizing the comments we narrowed down, stances toward the trade friction among the public in the target social context are analyzed.

Findings and discussion

Influence of national consciousness in discourse production

On the aspect of linguistic analysis, Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) equips CDA with analytical tools and theory to reveal meaning construction and embedded power, ideology, and social relations. In addition, transitivity in SFL refers to the semantic system that includes process, participant, and circumstantial elements in a clause to show personal experiences and actions encoded in language to construct meaning. The reproduction of transitivity process types in translation plays a crucial role in analyzing meaning construction and reconstruction throughout the translation process. Therefore it is essential to examine transitivity in translation within the dimension of discursive production, revealing the complex dynamics of translation as a social practice.

Focusing on the six processes of transitivity within the dimension of national consciousness in white papers’ translation is necessary as it allows for a detailed analysis of how national images and stances are discursively constructed and conveyed. The transitivity process - material, mental, verbal, relational, existential, and behavioral - offers insights into how national image and stance are discursively constructed, reflecting the national consciousness (Zhao, 2022). This approach reveals how translations could subtly modify or reinforce national ideology and identity, making it a crucial aspect of translation studies in political discourse. In this part, it will focus on the representation of transitivity processes between source text and target text.

From the transitivity process types in the ST corpus of white papers, it could be observed that, overall, material process has the most frequency, followed by relational process, verbal process, and to a lesser extent, mental process and behavioral process. Through process type retrieval in the annotated TT corpus, the results reveal that the transitivity process of TT is generally consistent with that of ST, where material process is the most frequent, followed by relational process and verbal process, with fewer instances of existential processes, mental processes, and behavioral processes (see Tables 1 and 2). Due to the limited occurrences of existential, mental, and behavioral processes, the following analysis will primarily focus on case analysis of translation in terms of material, relational, and verbal processes.

• (1) ST: 2018年3月以来, 针对美国政府单方面发起的中美经贸摩擦, 中国不得不采取有力应对措施, 坚决捍卫国家和人民利益。同时, 中国始终坚持通过对话协商解决争议的基本立场, 与美国开展多轮经贸磋商, 努力稳定双边经贸关系。

  LT: Since March 2018, aiming at the unilateral frictions initiated by the US government, China has had to take strong measures to resolutely protect the interests of the country and the people. At the same time, China has always insisted on the basic position of resolving disputes through dialog and consultation, conducted several rounds of economic and trade consultations with the United States, and worked hard to stabilize bilateral economic and trade relations.

  TT: In response to the economic and trade friction unilaterally initiated by the US in March 2018, China has had to take forceful measures to defend the interests of the nation and its people. At the same time, committed to resolving disputes through dialog and consultation, China has engaged in multiple rounds of economic and trade consultations with the US in an effort to stabilize the bilateral commercial relationship.

In this example, though TT basically keeps the consistency of the material process representation with that of ST, it also exhibits a construction of the national image during the translation with dual narrative progression. Based on DNPT (Ruan and Shen, 2024), a covert narrative emerges through lexical choices that may subtly shift the perception of China’s stance. The translation “take strong measures” in LT may not fully grasp the resolution and pressure that show the stance and attitude of China in the context of trade friction, but “take forceful measures” in the TT suggests a more assertive application of power, which may imply a stronger and potentially more determined stance than “take strong measures” (采取强有力的应对措施). This could imply a proactive posture rather than a purely reactive one. This shift subtly reinforces the covert narrative of China’s assertive response. The translation of “捍卫” in the LT is “protect”, and it implies a broad sense of safeguarding and preserving, without necessarily involving direct confrontation or conflict. However, it is rendered as “defend” in TT which constructs a discourse that emphasizes China’s reactive measures to protect its national interests, suggesting a compelled response to external threats rather than a premeditated stance (Wang and Ge, 2020, p. 83). This choice subtly weaves into the overt narrative a covert narrative of China as a defender under duress.

Furthermore, “insist”, the literal translation of “坚持”, doesn’t contain the underlying meaning of dedication and sustained efforts that “committed to” in TT expresses. “Conducted” in the LT is used to describe the performance or carrying out of an activity or process, emphasizing the action itself, instead of signifying involvement or participation in an activity, often with a focus on the depth, focus, and active role of the participant. In the TT, “坚持” (insist) and “开展” (conduct) are rendered as “committed to” and “engaged in” respectively, these translations not only convey China’s unwavering commitment to dialog and consultation but also reflect a proactive engagement in fostering bilateral economic and trade relations. These terms in ST reinforce the overt narrative of China’s active participation in seeking peaceful and constructive solutions, while also subtly suggesting a deeper level of engagement and dedication that is part of the covert narrative.

This dual narrative progression in TT serves to construct China as the defender of national and people’s interests, and a supporter of the friction-solving way of consultation and dialog. The overt narrative of adherence to dialog and consultation is complemented by the covert narrative of assertiveness and proactive engagement, reflecting a translation strategy that balances the source text’s intent with the target audience’s expectations and the translator’s national consciousness (Schäffner et al., 2014, p. 494).

• (2) ST: 中美经贸关系是两国关系的“压舱石”和“推进器”, 事关两国人

  民根本利益, 事关世界繁荣与稳定。

  LT: China-US economic and trade relations are the “ballast” and “propeller” of bilateral relations. They concern the fundamental interests of the peoples and the world prosperity and stability.

  TT: The China-US commercial relationship serves as both the ballast and the propeller of the overall bilateral relationship. At stake are the fundamental interests of the two peoples, and the prosperity and stability of the world.

The use of “serve as” and “are” in the TT corresponds closely to the relational process expressed in the ST, ensuring that the fundamental message is preserved. However, the addition of “overall” and “at stake” in the TT subtly shifts the narrative to emphasize the comprehensive and high-stakes nature of the relationship.

The term “overall” extends the narrative to suggest that the economic and trade relationship’s impact is all-encompassing, affecting not just specific areas but the entire bilateral dynamic. Its addition enhances the holistic portrayal of China-US economic and trade ties, emphasizing the overarching impact of the relationship on people’s well-being and global prosperity.

“At stake” imparts a covert narrative that raises the stakes, indicating that the relationship’s success or failure could have far-reaching consequences for global stability and development, thus adding a layer of urgency and significance to the overt narrative of mutual benefit and cooperation. It reflects a thoughtful consideration and acknowledgment of national consciousness and an inherent sense of national responsibility in the process of translation.

• (3) ST:联合国贸易和发展会议发布的《世界投资报告2018》指出, 为应对 新工业革命的机遇与挑战, 在过去十年中, 发达国家和发展中国家至少有101个经济体 (占全球GDP的90%以上) 出台了正式的产业发展战略。

  LT: According to the World Investment Report 2018 released by the UNCTAD, at least 101 economies in developed and developing countries (more than 90 percent of global GDP) have introduced formal industrial development strategies in the past decade in response to the opportunities and challenges of the new industrial revolution.

  TT: The UNCTAD World Investment Report 2018 pointed out that responding to the opportunities and challenges associated with a new industrial revolution, at least 101 economies across the developed and developing world (accounting for more than 90 percent of global GDP) have adopted formal industrial development strategies over the past 10 years.

Table 1 Transitivity processes in ST.

Table 2 Transitivity processes in TT.

The LT employs “according to”, which tends to frame the relevant document as a static source of information. This translation may underplay the significance and dynamism of the document or data being referenced. The verb phrase “pointed out” in TT serves as the primary verbal process, indicating the act of drawing attention to or highlighting a specific finding (Yin, 2019). By attributing the information to a reputable source, UNCTAD, the TT enhances the credibility and authority of the reported content. This lends weight to the statement and positions it as a well-founded and reliable observation. In addition, the verbs employed in the whole TT of the white papers within the verbal process category encompass a spectrum of expression, including “show”, “indicate”, “suggest”, “argue”, “estimate”, “said”, “comment”, “stipulate”, “state”, “point out”, “note”, “reveal”, “contend”, “project”, “warn”, among others. In ST of the whole, correspondingly, expressions denoting verbal processes are articulated through phrases such as “根据…”, “…显示”, “称”, “认为”, “指出”, “表示”.

This variety of verbal processes in the TT, when viewed through the lens of dual narrative progression, reveals a strategic use of language to present information that is both informative (overt) and persuasive or influential (covert). These verbal expressions could be seen as contributing to the overt narrative by providing a comprehensive view of the report’s content. Simultaneously, it enriches the covert narrative by adding layers of interpretation and emphasis that may guide the reader’s understanding and the reception of the report’s implications.

Negotiation in intersubjectivity

Intersubjectivity in translation refers to the interaction and negotiation of subjectivity between ST, the translator, TT, and the target audience (Chen, 2005, p. 9). It involves the translator’s ability to bridge the gap between different languages, cultures, ideologies and social contexts, conveying not only the literal meaning of ST but also its cultural differences, stance, attitude, and so forth.

Cultural negotiation among translation subjects

In the translation of white papers related to China-US economic and trade friction, culture-loaded expressions become focal points of negotiation. Translators navigate these expressions to accurately convey intended meanings while considering the cultural understanding of target audiences. The negotiation involves making informed decisions about how to render culturally specific terms, idioms, or references in a way that resonates with the target culture while preserving the integrity of ST meaning (Fu, 2022).

• (4) ST:两国经济连骨带筋、互利共赢, 把贸易逆差当作“吃亏”是算错了账。

  LT: The economies of the two countries are connected like bones and tendons, mutually beneficial and mutually winning. Regarding the trade deficit as “suffering losses” is a miscalculation of the account.

  TT: The two economies are bound in a union that is mutually beneficial and win-win in nature. Equating a trade deficit to being taken advantage of is an error.

Expressions, such as “连骨带筋” (the bone with tendons), “吃亏” (suffer losses) and “算错账” (miscalculation of the account) are culture-loaded Chinese idioms and colloquial phrases. LT translates underlined phrases in the ST into “bones and tendons”, “suffering losses”, and “miscalculation of the account”, separately. It only focuses on the ST’s meaning too literally without comprehensively considering the social and cultural context of the ST. This could lead to translations that, while technically correct, may not resonate with the target audience or convey the full meaning of the ST. In the TT, the overt narrative is the direct translation of cultural expressions, where the translator aims to maintain the ST’s intent and cultural significance. For example, the Chinese idiom “连骨带筋” is translated as “bound in a union”, which overtly describes the interconnected nature of the economies. The phrase “吃亏” is translated as “being taken advantage of”, which subtly introduces a covert narrative that resonates with the target audience’s social context, suggesting a misperception of loss where there is none. The covert narrative emerges through the choices made to adapt cultural expressions to the target audience’s expectations and understanding. Rendering “算错账” as “an error” reflects a balance between the overt narrative of correcting a miscalculation and the covert narrative of addressing the target audience’s potential misconceptions about trade deficits.

The shift between dual narrative progression in the translation of culture-loaded expressions represents a form of intersubjective negotiation (Ruan and Shen, 2024). The overt narrative ensures clarity and accuracy, while the covert narrative subtly adjusts the ST to the target audience’s cultural and social context, enhancing comprehension and facilitating the effective dissemination of the translated text.

Four-character idioms are frequently used in Chinese expression, and these idioms often carry rich cultural, historical, or philosophical meanings within the four characters, making them concise expressions with deep significance. Translating them while preserving their subtle meanings often requires careful consideration of the cultural and historical background.

• (5) ST: 君子之国, 先礼后兵。

  LT: In a country of the gentleman, courtesy comes before soldiers.

  TT: A civilized country turns to forceful measures only when gentler approaches have failed.

In the LT, “the gentleman” partially grasps some aspects of “君子”, yet fails to fully encapsulate its cultural connotations. Similarly, “courtesy comes before soldiers” aligns with the literal meaning of the original, but “soldiers” tends to evoke images of military actions, whereas “兵” in the ST primarily refers to a form of tough or coercive measure, not necessarily military in nature. This may lead to a misconception that in such a country, courtesy and military actions are parallel, whereas the ST emphasizes a strategic sequence of actions. “君子” in Chinese originally refers to individuals possessing noble character and social standing. However, in the context of the ST, it serves as an attributive modifier for “国家” (country) rather than referring to individuals. Therefore, within this context, it is translated as “civilized” to describe China. The terms “礼” (courtesy) and “兵” (soldier) are not translated literally in TT but are instead placed within the current context of China-US trade friction. They are rendered as “gentler approaches” and “forceful measures”, respectively, representing two strategies employed by China in the ongoing dynamics: negotiation and imposition of tariffs. The overt narrative is the LT, which provides a direct interpretation of the idiom’s basic meaning. The covert narrative emerges through the adaptation of the idiom’s meaning to the specific cultural and social context of the target audience.

Ideological negotiation among translation subjects

In the backdrop of the China-US trade friction, the Chinese-English translation of white papers related to this social event involves certain ideological negotiations. The process requires translators to identify the discrepancy of the underlying beliefs, values, and cultural perspectives inherent in the source and target languages. As translators mediate between the source and target texts, they engage in negotiations to accurately convey the intended meaning while adapting to the ideological recognition of the target audience.

• (6) ST: 中国坚定推动构建人类命运共同体。

  LT: China firmly promotes the construction of a community of common destiny for mankind.

  TT: China is firmly committed to building a community with a shared future for mankind.

The literal translation of “人类命运共同体” is “a community of common destiny for mankind”, but “common destiny” might not align with prevailing perspectives in the target context, and it might be misunderstood. The term “destiny” carries a religious connotation, indicating something predetermined and unchangeable. In Western culture, “common destiny” is intentionally associated with a fate linked to mortality, which may be perceived as overly negative and doesn’t align with the cultural values advocated by the concept of “人类命运共同体”. Therefore, “shared future” is used to express the harmonious development of humanity in a more positive manner. The overt narrative is the literal translation, which provides a transparent translation that is faithful to the source text. The covert narrative is subtly introduced by tailoring the term to resonate with the values of the target audience. Ideological negotiation is the process by which the translator reconciles the ST meaning with the target audience’s ideology. This negotiation is evident in the shift from “common destiny” to “shared future”, ensuring that the term is not only accurate but also culturally resonant and positively framed.

• (7) ST: 以邻为壑的单边主义、保护主义不得人心。

  LT: The unilateralism and protectionism of seeking selfish gains at the expense of neighbors are not welcomed by the people.

  TT: Beggar-thy-neighbor unilateralism and protectionism are unpopular.

The LT translates “以邻为壑” directly as “seeking selfish gains at the expense of neighbors”, which, while conveying a similar sentiment, lacks the idiomatic richness and ideological resonance of the original phrase. “以邻为壑” in ST means “turning a neighbor into a ditch for one’s overflow”, and it is used to underscore the importance of good relations with neighboring countries and communities. The covert narrative emerges through the selection of “beggar-thy-neighbor”, a term that carries a deeper historical context, particularly from the Great Depression. Furthermore, this choice also involves an ideological negotiation: unilateralism and protectionism are characterized by a “beggar-thy-neighbor” mentality. It seeks to ensure the target audience understands the negative connotations associated with the original meaning.

News reports and public perceptions in the target social context

Understanding translation as a social practice means examining its role and impact in the target social context (Yin, 2019). A key part of this analysis involves looking closely at discursive distribution and consumption within the mainstream media of the target social context. Using Antconc 3.5.8, this corpus is examined to unveil the discursive representation and image construction of China in the media coverage of the white papers.

Utilizing Antconc for the analysis of word frequency in the corpus, Table 3 outlines the top 12 content words with frequencies over 20. The word cloud depicted in Fig. 2 underscores the primary thematic concentrations in news reports, prominently featuring China (including terms such as China and Chinese), the United States (Trump, United, American), trade, tariffs, talk, and negotiations. Given that the release of white papers signifies a declaration of China’s standpoint, with the keyword “China” accounting for the highest frequency, this section delves into the examination of the stance and image construction encapsulated by the keyword “China”. Figure 3 illustrates the results of Antconc retrieval, highlighting 55 concordances that contribute to the construction of China’s position or stance out of the 183 retrieved concordances centered around the keyword “China”.

Table 3 Keywords of news report on white papers.

Fig. 2: Word cloud of the news report on white papers.

(The word cloud, generated from keyword frequency in Western news reports on translated white papers, highlights dominant thematic focuses.).

Fig. 3: Percentage of China’s image construction in news reports.

(This figure presents results from the corpus of Western news reports on translated white papers, identifying keyword-centered concordances (for “China”) that directly contribute to framing China’s image.).

In an analysis including 55 concordances, the findings depicted in Fig. 3 illuminate the narrative shaping China’s portrayal within the translated white papers across foreign media outlets. Notably, 34 concordances, constituting 61.8%, construct an image of China characterized by backtracking, unfair trade practices, and an unwavering stance in the process of trade negotiation with the US. Furthermore, 7 concordances, accounting for 12.7%, position China as a victim during the ongoing trade friction. Conversely, 20% of the concordances (11 in total) depict China as reluctant to initiate a trade war, actively engaging in negotiations. In contrast, a mere 5.5% of the concordances (3 in total) convey China’s negotiation willingness. The insights gleaned from Fig. 3 underscore a prevalent trend in foreign media coverage, whereby the emphasis lies on constructing a predominantly negative stance and image of China, which is particularly evident in the US’s portrayal of China’s perceived backtracking in the process of China-US. trade consultation, its alleged engagement in unfair trade practices, and the confrontational position adopted during trade tensions. Notably, there is a discernible scarcity in the representation of China in the news reports expressing a cooperative and negotiation-oriented approach to addressing trade frictions with the US.

• (8) In a white paper released Sunday morning, […] “China will never give in on major issues of principle,” the white paper said. “China isn’t willing to fight a trade war, but it isn’t afraid to fight and will fight if necessary. That attitude has not changed.”

• (9) “The more the U.S. government is offered, the more it wants,” the paper said, adding that America’s negotiators are “resorting to intimidation and coercion.”

• (10) Beijing released a white paper on Sunday saying[…]“The Chinese government rejects the idea that threats of a trade war and continuous tariff hikes can ever help resolve trade and economic issues,” according to the white paper.

• (11) China can ensure good momentum for sustained economic development and economic prospects for the country are “extremely optimistic”, the paper said. China will not concede on issues of principle, it added.

• (12) The report from the Cabinet spokesman’s office said China won’t back down on “major issues of principle,” but it offered no sense of whether or how the world’s second-largest economy might retaliate against U.S. tariffs on goods manufactured in China and exported to the U.S.

From the media coverage of the white paper by foreign media outlets in examples (8) to (12), such as the New York Times, Foxbusiness, Reuters, CBSnews, and Bloomberg, it is evident that these sources directly and selectively quote the content of the white papers’ translation, especially focusing more on expressions like “never give in”, “it isn’t afraid to fight”, “reject”, “will not concede”, and “won’t back down”. They emphasize China’s resolute and confrontational attitude and stance of being criticizing, not fearing a trade war, and not yielding, rather than the stance of solving disputes through dialog and consultation declared in white papers. While appearing objectively rational through direct quotation of white papers, the reporters’ ideologies subtly dominate the discourse, highlighting China’s uncompromising position in line with their own purposes (Yang and Wang, 2023). This, in turn, influences readers’ judgments and perceptions.

News reports which are discussed front on the translation of white papers have only touched upon its distribution. To further explore the function of white paper translation as a social practice, the next part of this paper will extend its examination to a broader social context, analyzing the audience’s stance on social media videos in terms of China-US economic and trade friction during the same period as the news reports. It aims to reveal, to some extent, the interaction and influence between news coverage and audience stances.

As shown in Table 4 and Fig. 4, a majority of comments, totaling 215, exhibited a supportive stance towards the US involvement in and initiation of economic and trade friction, representing 53% of the data. Conversely, comments expressing opposition to the US engagement in trade friction amounted to 108, constituting 27% of the total comments. Comments characterized by a rational and neutral perspective accounted for 62, making up 15% of the overall data. Additionally, there were 22 comments expressing concerns or worries about China-US economic and trade friction, constituting 5% of the total comments.

Table 4 Public stance on US initiation of China-US trade friction.

Fig. 4: Percentage of public stance on US.

initiation of China-US trade friction. (This figure presents public stances from Facebook and YouTube news comments on US-initiated China-US trade friction, categorized as follows: support, opposition, neutral, and worry.).

Commentators from English-speaking countries predominantly express a supportive attitude toward the US initiation of trade friction, with nearly twice as many comments favoring this stance compared to those in opposition. As outlined in the previous discussion on the coverage of the translated white papers by mainstream Western media, it is evident that these media outlets tend to emphasize China’s unwillingness to compromise, its unyielding and criticizing stance. However, there is limited coverage of China’s advocacy for resolving trade disputes through negotiation and dialog. The prominent highlighting of China’s confrontational stance is likely to elicit opposition sentiments among the audience, shaping public opinion to align with the stance of the US government.

The examination of the discursive practice of white paper translation unveils an interplay across three crucial dimensions: national consciousness, intersubjectivity, and the social context, covering the production, distribution of translated white papers, and consumption of related issues or topics. The analysis of the news reports and video comments are seemingly divergent, but they, to some extent, may have some interactions. Collected news reports serve as authoritative narratives, emphasizing China’s unyielding and confrontational stance as articulated in the white papers. However, video comments on social media represent public opinions, more than half of which support the US in initiating the trade friction. It is often perceived that the influence between news reports and public opinions is likely bidirectional, which means that news reports could shape public opinion, but public opinion could also shape the content and tone of news reports (Guo et al. 2023; Succar et al. 2024). This dynamic suggests a feedback loop where news reports influence public opinion, which in turn influences future media coverage, creating a cycle that may amplify certain narratives and attitudes. In the context of China-US trade friction, this loop may contribute to a self-reinforcing narrative that supports or even encourages a trade war, as both the media and the public seem to align on the perception of China’s stance. So, this alignment could indicate that the media is either catering to existing public sentiment or actively shaping it to align with a particular viewpoint, which may have implications for the broader discourse on international relations and policy decisions.

For the first research question, this paper primarily investigates the representation of the TT for the ST in terms of transitivity, as well as the negotiation among translation subjects. On the one hand, the manifestation of national consciousness in translation is evident in linguistic choices made by the translator to convey China’s stance in dual narrative progression, making compensation for previous studies (Al-Hejin, 2012; Pan, 2015; Kim, 2017). Terms like “defend”, “forceful measures”, “committed to”, and “engaged in” construct a narrative of China as a proactive defender of national interests and supporter of negotiation and dialog. This discursive framing aligns with the national consciousness embedded in the source text, guiding the meaning and image construction in the translation process. On the other hand, intersubjectivity plays a crucial role in filling cultural and ideological gaps between the source and target language. The negotiation of culture-ideology-loaded expressions like four-character idioms and colloquial phrases requires the translator to strike a delicate balance, ensuring that the intended meaning resonates effectively with the target audience. The choices made in translation shape intersubjective understanding and bridge cultural and ideological discrepancies for effective communication.

To address the second research question, the social context dimension covers the discursive distribution and consumption. Analyzing news reports reveals a different construction of China’s image, where emphasis on certain aspects in translation is magnified or altered (Yin, 2019; Hu and Li, 2022). The discursive differences in news reports influence public perception, emphasizing particular dimensions of China’s stance over others. The relationship between translation, news reports, and public perception is intricate. While the translated white papers emphasize China’s commitment to dialog and negotiation, news reports often highlight China’s confrontational and unyielding stance. This shift in emphasis may shape public perception, further demonstrating the impact of media framing on the interpretation of disputable events (Yang and Wang, 2023, p. 12).

Public comments on trade and economic friction between China and the US are gathered from social media and analyzed for the third research question throughout the same time span to that of news reports. The investigation into public stances on the China-US trade friction might suggest that a considerable number of commentators from English-speaking countries support the US involvement in or agitation over the trade friction. This stance seems to be almost double in comparison to opposing views. The stances could be regarded as the influence of the coverage by Western media, which tends to emphasize China’s resolute stance in the white papers and possibly downplays its readiness for dialog. Findings from this paper indicate that media portrayal could significantly shape audience perspectives, potentially aligning public sentiment more with the US government’s stance and underscoring the pivotal role media plays in international political discourse. To some extent, it also reflects that social media may attempt to guide public stance through discursive construction, forming a group consensus of ‘us’ on the aspect of ideology (Wang, 2021). Findings in this dimension further develop the connection between translation and social practice in the target social context and also provide further advancement on previous studies (Schäffner, Tcaciuc and Tesseur, 2014; Li and Xu, 2018; Hu and Li, 2022; Modestus, 2024).

Conclusion

This study has conducted a comprehensive analysis of the discursive practice in the translation of white papers on China-US economic and trade friction by employing a framework of national consciousness, intersubjectivity, and social context. The research underscores the pervasive influence of national consciousness on political discourse translation, shaping both meaning and image construction. It also pays attention to the dynamic negotiation among translation subjects, reflecting cultural and ideological considerations. By employing DNPT, the study explores how overt and covert narratives are utilized in translations to construct and convey national image and ideology in the process of discursive production.

In terms of discursive distribution, the analysis of news reports further reveals one-sided discursive construction for translated white papers. Moreover, for discursive consumption, public stances on China-US trade friction from social platforms are analyzed, and it provides insights into the influence and guidance of media reports on public perception and demonstrates the interplay between translation, media representation, and audience stance.

The findings confirm that translation in political discourse is not merely a linguistic conversion but a complex, socially embedded practice deeply intertwined with national identity, cultural norms, translating subjects, and ideological and power dynamics. We contribute to a deeper understanding of the function of translation in participating in social practice, emphasizing the need for an interdisciplinary approach that considers discourse, cultural, and ideological factors in translation studies.

This research critically examines discursive practice in the translation of political discourse, expanding the prevailing linguistic focus in contemporary translation studies. Utilizing a framework based on CDA that integrates national consciousness, intersubjectivity, and social context, the study views translation as a complex social practice. Focusing on China’s white papers about China-US economic and trade friction, the research examines the dynamics shaping translation production, distribution, and consumption. This study makes a contribution to the interdisciplinary intersection of translation studies and political discourse. By linking translation and social practice, the theoretical framework and case study provided could serve as a foundation for future research in this field.