Table 1 Measurements.

Existential authenticity

(EA)

EA 1

This VR experience gave me an insight into the history and culture of cultural heritage.

Tian et al. (2020), Zhang et al. (2021), Li et al. (2024), Atzeni et al. (2022)

EA 2

This VR experience allowed me to experience the relevant history and culture.

EA 3

This VR experience strengthened the connection between my mind and cultural heritage.

EA 4

This VR experience enriched my life experience.

Immersion

(IM)

IM 1

This VR experience made me forget my surroundings.

Lunardo and Ponsignon (2020) and Mütterlein (2018)

IM 2

During the VR experience, although I was in another place, my mind was in the VR world.

IM 3

During the VR experience, I can follow the hints to enter the plot and content.

IM 4

During the VR experience, I seemed to forget the real world outside.

Cultural attachment

(CA)

CA 1

In this VR experience, I felt a sense of pride in the culture and history of this heritage.

Cheng and Chen (2022), Hoang et al. (2020), Liu et al. (2023)

CA 2

During this VR experience, I felt a strong sense of identification with the culture of this heritage.

CA 3

This VR experience created a sense of awe and a deep inner connection to the history and culture of this heritage.

CA 4

In this VR experience, I realized that the culture of this heritage is irreplaceable.

Satisfaction

(SA)

SA 1

I’m satisfied with this VR experience.

Phaosathianphan and Leelasantitham (2021)

SA 2

I’m pleased with this VR experience.

SA 3

This VR experience fulfilled my expectations.

SA 4

I cannot forget this VR experience.

Intention to reuse

(IR)

IR 1

I plan to use this Cloud Tour Dunhuang for VR experiences in the future.

Schiopu et al. (2022)

IR 2

I’ll access the Cloud Tour Dunhuang again when I want to experience something new.

IR 3

I plan to use Cloud Tour Dunhuang more often for VR experiences.

Social sustainability

(SSU)

SSU 1

I think adopting the VR experience of the Cloud Tour Dunhuang increases awareness of cultural and heritage protection.

Marín-García et al. (2022), Phaosathianphan and Leelasantitham (2021), Scott and Frew (2014)

SSU 2

I think the VR experience with the Cloud Tour Dunhuang increases user participation and allows more people to experience the charm of cultural heritage.

SSU 3

I think I have learned a lot about local culture and art because of the VR experience of the Cloud Tour Dunhuang.

SSU 4

I believe that my VR experience with the Cloud Tour Dunhuang has given me a sense of cultural identity and fulfillment for the benefit of the community.