Introduction

Media accessibility is an undeniable human right; therefore, advancements in AD research and practice will lead to a better world in which everyone with different needs and abilities has adequate access to multimedia and audiovisual content (Remael & Reviers, 2019). AD research seeks to improve the tools and approaches for inclusion with the aim of increasing user satisfaction.

While numerous European scholars have explored AD from various perspectives (Bardini, 2020; Chmiel & Mazur, 2012, 2016, 2021; Fryer & Walczak, 2020; Jekat & Carrer, 2018; Ramos Caro & López, 2014; Taylor & Perego, 2022; Walczak, 2017), research in Iran has predominantly concentrated on other AVT dimensions such as dubbing (e.g., Nord et al., 2015) and subtitling (e.g., Khoshsaligheh et al., 2024, Shokoohmand & Khoshsaligheh, 2024). So, academic research on AD in Iran is considerably limited, with only a few publications addressing this area (Homayouni & Khoshsaligheh, 2024; Khoshsaligheh & Shafiei, 2021; Khoshsaligheh et al., 2022). Despite fledgling endeavors but thriving in AD service in recent years in Iran, GooshkonFootnote 1 (the neighborhood of the blind), Sevina GroupFootnote 2, and other volunteer communities on social media have been formed to provide services for Iranian visually impaired audiences to make mainstream audiovisual content accessible. Nevertheless, there is no information regarding the quality and reception of their AD products. That is why, systematic investigation is needed to help clarify if these products meet the different needs and expectations of the blind community in Iran.

Although few studies on AVT have investigated emotional aspects within the Iranian context (e.g., Khoshsaligheh et al., 2018), no research prior to the present study has examined the reception of emotion in AD in Iran. This article presents a study that investigates two different AD styles—neutral and innovative emotive—from the perspectives of blind and visually impaired audiences. The neutral style adheres to the ADLAB guidelines, while the innovative emotive style includes emotional details of the characters’ actions and scenes crucial to the plot, incorporating the audio describer’s expression of feelings to complement the film’s visual stimuli. Specifically, this study seeks to answer the following questions:

  1. 1.

    Among the eight parameters, does emotive AD enhance the audience’s perception of emotions compared to the neutral AD style?

  2. 2.

    Do blind and visually impaired Iranian audiences prefer a neutral or emotive AD style for drama feature films in Persian?

  3. 3.

    What are the specific dimensions in which participants prefer emotive AD to neutral AD?

The article then reports on the findings and discusses the results in the context of Iranian society.

Literature Review

AD Guidelines

Reception-based and empirically supported AD practice guidelines are still ideal, and we must look into the future. Although scholarly exploration of AD is growing, they remain in their nascent stages, with recent efforts focusing on different aspects of AD in diverse contexts (Braun, 2008; Diaz Cintas, 2007; Homayouni & Khoshsaligheh, 2024; Jankowska, 2023; Jiménez & Seibel, 2012; MarzàIbañez, 2010; Salway, 2007). The focus of the ADLAB project involves conducting research in six distinct countries (Italy, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Poland, and Germany) with the aim of establishing standardized AD guidelines for more efficient practices and use.

Despite many shared views in current AD guidelines and practices, there is no unanimous agreement on all aspects. For example, while in many settings, including Spain, the USA, Germany, and the UK, guidelines tend to recommend objective and neutral AD of images (“AENOR,” 2005; “American Council of the Blind,” 2009; Snyder, 2008), others have tended to approach AD in a style that presents an alternative to the objective style in recent years (Bardini, 2020; Ramos Caro, 2016; Szarkowska, 2013; Walczak & Fryer, 2017a). Even critiques against the pure objectivity principle have emerged (Bardini, 2020; Marra, 2023; Muñoz, 2023; Schaeffer-Lacroix et al., 2023). Doloughan (2005) asserts that all acts of translation involve interpretation, and Haig (2005) highlights inherent subjectivity in film viewing and reception. Some argue that objectivity cannot be fully achieved in AD due to its fundamentally human nature and subjectivity cannot be eliminated (Finbow, 2010; Holland, 2009; Schaeffer-Lacroix et al., 2023).

Certain guidelines propose the inclusion of characters’ emotions in AD, as advocated by Dosch and Benecke and Dosch (2004) and Morisset and Gonant (2008). Notably, guidelines in the UK and Germany generally recommend using adverbs to reflect emotions yet remain objective (Hörfilm e.V. (2005)). Conversely, some other guidelines in Greece oppose this directive, advocating for a focus solely on describing physical gestures and body movements of characters (Benecke & Dosch, 2004; Morisset & Gonant, 2008). Ambiguities and contradictions in guidelines regarding issues like the use of adjectives, description of emotions, and the inclusion of metaphors further complicate the matter too much. For instance, while most guidelines recommend neutral adjectives, the French guidelines encourage subjective adjectives when describing an obvious characteristic (Rai et al., 2010). Describing emotions objectively remains controversial and challenging, leading to variations in recommendations among different guidelines. Similar discrepancies exist in the use of verbs, inferences, and metaphors, resulting in heterogeneous AD styles globally (Benecke & Dosch, 2004; Bourne & Jiménez, 2007; Herrador Molina, 2006; Jiménez et al., 2010; Luque Colmenero, 2019; Matamala & Rami, 2009; Vercauteren, 2007). In response to the constraints imposed by the objectivity principle, some scholars advocate for a more proactive role for AD. The concept of Audio Narration (AN) (Kruger, 2010) develops, wherein AD transcends mere description to become a narrative that elicits a strong response in the audience (Holland, 2009; Yeung, 2007).

Mazur and Chmiel (2012) underscore the controversy surrounding interpretation in AD, particularly in cases where distinguishing between objectivity and subjectivity becomes blurry and uncertain due to linguistic or time constraints. Perego (2014) notes that European AD guidelines’ reluctance to include cinematic techniques, emphasizing the need for objective descriptions. However, scholars like Orero (2012) and Malzer-Semlinger (2012) advocate for a nuanced approach, suggesting that describers should engage in the ‘reading’ of a film to encapsulate its meaning within AD. Newer guidelines, such as the ADLAB AD Guidelines consider finding a balance between individual interpretation and more text-based objectivity crucial for effective AD. Determining the textual category of AD elicits divergent perspectives. Some assert a conservative stance, including Poethe (2005) and Chapado Sánchez (2010) emphasizing the AD role in objective description and essential information transmission. In contrast, dissenting voices ascribe a more active role to AD (Jiménez et al., 2010; Rodríguez Domínguez, 2007; Rodríguez Posadas, 2007).

AD Reception

In the case of AD reception, we should consider the non-uniformity of audiences. Some are congenital blindness, without visual memory, and some acquired blindness, so they have some visual memory. As a result, we ought to produce AD for all these groups (Gambier, 2018). While investigations into the reception of AD remain limited—more so in some countries than others, existing studies provide valuable insights into audience responses and preferences, exploring various aspects of this field (Braun, 2007, 2011, 2016; Chmiel & Mazur, 2016; DTV4ALL, 2010; Hättich & Schweizer, 2020; Matamala, 2005; Orero, 2007; Pettitt et al., 1996; Rai, 2009; Schmeidler & Kirchner, 2001; Vercauteren, 2012; Zengin Temırbek uulu et al., (2021)). Many studies adopt a comparative approach, analyzing the reception of different AD styles, including Bourne and Leal (2010), and Iglesias et al. (2011). Concerning memory limitation, Fresno et al. (2014) hypothesized that providing a detailed description can disrupt the audiences’ recall of characters; moreover, the authors propound solutions such as limiting the information included in AD script and breaking into shorter segmented units in order to better recalling of information, therefore, providing AD users with so much information about the events is not a practical solution. Ramos Caro (2015) went one step further and analyzed the emotional experience of sighted and blind users with three different stimuli, which is comprised scenes of both images and sound, scenes with just sound, and scenes with AD and found out the description of the images is an essential factor for the blind.

Methodologically, Chmiel and Mazur (2012) provide an extensive overview of reception studies on AD, addressing key methodological considerations. Notably, Fryer’s work examines the impact of sound and verbal descriptions on the reception of AD, emphasizing the effectiveness of words in eliciting presence and demonstrating that including verbal descriptions does not diminish audience presence, empathy, or affect (Fryer & Freeman, 2014; Fryer et al., 2013).

Subjectivity and objectivity pose challenges in AD reception. In comparison, subjective styles, and approaches in AD (creative, narrative, cinematic, interpretative) outperform objective ones (standard, conventional) from the perspective of blind and visually impaired audiences (Bardini, 2020; Walczak & Fryer, 2017a). Ramos Caro and López (2014) recommends revising guidelines to accommodate diverse emotional responses, challenging the notion of strict objectivity. Ramos Caro (2016) investigates the emotional reception of AD with neutral versus subjective descriptions, finding that subjective AD more efficiently conveys fear and sadness and is well-received by users. Jekat and Carrer (2018) found interpretative AD more favorable, enhancing audience engagement and comprehension. Vercauteren (2007) also asserts that interpretative AD better conveys emotions. Szarkowska’s (2013) ‘auteur description’ style, focusing on the director’s creative vision, received positive feedback for its entertaining and immersive qualities. Consistent with this viewpoint, Walczak and Fryer (2017a) explore the impact of creative AD, defined as an approach incorporating cinematic terminology, deviations from standard language, and subjective description, and their findings indicate that creative AD enhances presence and is preferred by study participants. Wilken and Kruger (2016) study the effect of mise-en-shot elements on both sighted and blind audiences, revealing a correlation between these elements and character identification. However, narratological behaviors suggest an objectivity-subjectivity scale to balance interpretation without patronization (Mazur & Chmiel, 2012). Overall, the literature, as it was addressed, suggests that subjective AD styles with their creative, cinematic and emotional elements, enhance audience engagement more effectively than objective styles.

Emotion in AD

The role of emotions in AD reception is pivotal. Guidelines disagree on describing emotions objectively or incorporating subjective interpretations (Benecke & Dosch, 2004; Morisset & Gonant, 2008). Studies reveal varying responses to different AD styles, emphasizing the concern for emotional elements in AD (Ramos Caro, 2015). (Walczak, 2017) advocates for creative description, adding emotional nuances to engage users fully. Fryer and Freeman et al. (2013) found human voice AD to positively impact presence and emotion elicitation, emphasizing the importance of emotional cues. Fernández et al. (2015) conducted a two-stage study to reassess prevailing assumptions on the preferred neutrality of the audio describers’ voice in the context of audio described films. Their research challenges prior notions, revealing that audiences favor AD with voice aligned with the visual stimuli, suggesting a departure from the traditional emphasis on neutral delivery (Fernández et al., 2015).

According to certain AD guidelines (ADLAB PRO, 2017), the describer should not subjectively interpret but rather act as “the faithful lens of a camera” (Udo & Fels, 2009, p.179). Walczak (2017) does not see this rule as germane to artistic films and suggests an alternative style called creative description. Its purpose is to engage the audience by adding emotional words to describe the main elements of the film – characters, scenes, and actions. This AD is meant to help the audience fully understand the film’s innate cinematic flair and immerse themselves in the narrative (Walczak, 2017). Afterwards, Walczak and Fryer (2017b) used clips that provoked the sighted audience’s fear and sadness to ascertain the extent verbal information transferring emotional cues affected blind and partially sighted people’s experience of a film. They indicated that adding verbal information did not bring about a reduction in the levels of elicited emotion. Consequently, they found human voice AD, the only stimulus which positively enhances presence and emotion elicitation. Blind and partially sighted people may consider sound effects and emotive music redundant where film dialogue gives enough information. Nevertheless, their findings offered a suitable creative AD that integrates elements of camera work and subjective descriptions of the characters and their actions rather than discarding covering the non-verbal element of film soundtracks. To recreate the feel of the scene for the blind and visually impaired audience in a live performance of Hamlet, some scholars consumed subjective, emotional AD (Udo et al., 2010; Udo & Fels, 2009). In addition, the AD was accompanied by iambic pentameter, a traditional Shakespearian form, and it was transferred from Horatio’s perspective. As a result, the audience indicated positive feedback towards the AD. Thus, if the AD fits emotionally, linguistically, and stylistically with the performances, the audience enjoys and feels the product better. Besides, to analyze how AD conveys characters’ emotions, Marra (2023) proposed a model applied to a contrastive analysis of Spanish and Italian AD versions of a film. The study found that the Spanish version, unlike the Italian one, favored a factual approach, abide by their national guidelines that emphasize objectivity in AD. The research concluded that AD should consider scene’s intended message, including characters’ emotions in producing AD. This prioritization of implied meaning can enhance the audiences’ enjoyment and immersion.

Method

Research Design

This study is based on a sequential mixed-methods design (Saldanha & O’Brien, 2014) whereby qualitative data collection and analysis is undertaken first primarily to help design the instrument required for the quantitative data collection.

Participants

During the qualitative phase, a purposively selected sample of 12 participants from among the Iranian blind and visually impaired audience viewers were invited to contribute to the study and were interviewed online and in person. After interviewing the twelfth participant, the authors believed that they have reached data saturation (Saldanha & O’Brien, 2014) and stopped data collection through interviews. The same participants were 20 to 35 years of age and lived in different cities of Iran. The participants were selected from among the individuals with various visual impairments including partial impaired vision (n = 4), congenital blindness (n = 4), and acquired blindness (n = 4).

In the quantitative phase, a criterion selection of 138 blind and visually impaired Persian-speaking individuals were invited. Eventually, however, 70 participants contributed to the study by viewing the two versions of the short film and completing the questionnaire afterwards. The participants were 18 years of age or older and lived in different cities of Iran. The participants were contacted, and their responses were collected individually. The selected sample included participants with partially sightedness (n = 16), congenital blindness (n = 30), and acquired blindness (n = 24).

Instruments

  1. A.

    Interview Protocol: Initially, a semi-structured in-depth interview protocol (Dörnyei, 2007) was designed which included nine initial questions to be followed by emerging probing questions by the decision of the interviewer (See Appendix A). The semi-structured interview covered participants’ familiarity with AD, their experience with audio described films, and whether AD increase their understanding. The questions also addressed preferences regarding preferences regarding narration voice, tone and the AD content, along with any problems they faced. furthermore, participants were asked about their overall judgment of AD in Iran, including its strengths and weaknesses. The aim was to draw on the interviewees’ experiences and preferences to explore the quality criteria and dimensions of AD from the perspectives of Iranian audiences. The results led to a pool of items to be used in the development of the questionnaire for the quantitative phase.

  2. B.

    Originally Designed Questionnaire: Based on the thematic analysis of the in-depth interview data, a pool of items on the various parameters and themes of a preferred AD was extracted. Further items were sought in the related literature. Following Dörnyei (2007), the pool of items was used to develop and construct the questionnaire instrument for the quantitative and main phase of the study. A five-point rating scale (1 | very poor, 2 | poor, 3 | fair, 4 | good, and 5 | excellent) was used to provide the rating options for each item. To ensure the content validity of the questionnaire, the initial draft was subjected to the comments and revisions of four AD scholars and their comments were used to improve the content and phrasing of the items. Additionally, as the final question, participants were asked to choose their preferred AD between the neutral and emotive style. Also, to improve the readability and clarity of the questionnaire to establish the face validity of the data, nine potential participants were invited to review the items and instructions and recommend revisions where necessary. The early version of the questionnaire was improved based on their comments and suggestions. Before the main section of the questionnaire, a demographic section was also created to collect descriptive information on the participants such as age, gender and the type and extent of impaired vision (See Appendix B).

  3. C.

    Short Film: Another instrument which was used for data collection was the short film, Duel, (Kheradmandan, 2017). It is a drama film of approximately 3 minutes long and is rated 6.5 out of 10 on IMDBFootnote 3. The film has an emotional theme of social radical differences indicating the fact that human society is at the extremes of poverty and wealth, and in between humanity is lost. The film has been the recipient of multiple national and international awards and recognitions. Some images can be seen from the film in Fig. 1.

    Fig. 1
    figure 1

    Screenshots from the short film, Duel (Kheradmandan, 2017).

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  4. D.

    AD versions: GooshkonFootnote 4, an NGO which aims to support and empower the blind community in Iran, and provides AD services, was requested to create AD in two different styles intended for the study and later benefit of their users. In the neutral style following ADLAB guidelines, the narrator reads the AD out monotonously. The emotive style includes additional information about the appearance of the characters, the scenes, and the emotional expressions in the story. This innovative emotive AD style was inspired by an existing AD created by Sevina in Iran. The authors’ interactions with blind and visually impaired film audiences and their feedback also significantly influenced the development of this style. Additionally, the inspiration came from observing objective descriptions and contrasting them with other descriptions produced in Iran. Thus, an experienced audio describer wrote the AD scripts in consultation with three experts and ten AD target users. A narrator was chosen to read both texts with neutral and emotive intonation. While the neutral version opted for monotonous, neutral, and unmarked wording, the emotive AD deliberately included emotionally loaded words and vibrant expressions to make the text more plausible and in accordance with the visual image. Some examples of both styles can be seen in Table 1.

    Table 1 Examples of two styles that differ in wording.
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Procedures

The study was run in two phases: a qualitative phase followed by the quantitative. The qualitative phase included in-person interviews with a purposive selection (Saldanha & O’Brien, 2014) of 12 blind and visually impaired volunteers. The interviews took approximately 30 minutes on average. The thematic analysis of the data revealed the following eight parameters as the main dimensions and quality criteria of AD. They are consistently supported by the seminal international literature on AD as discussed in the literature review:

  1. 1.

    emotive narration,

  2. 2.

    close-to-sighted experience,

  3. 3.

    narration during film silence,

  4. 4.

    alignment of film sound and narrator’s voice,

  5. 5.

    visualization capacity,

  6. 6.

    enjoyment and immersion potentials,

  7. 7.

    the soundtrack of the film, and

  8. 8.

    additional information about film scenes and characters’ appearances.

The quantitative phase was planned to illicit comparison and preferences of the selection of participants in terms of the two editions of neutral and emotive AD by means of an originally designed questionnaire. The questionnaire items were formulated based on the identified parameters. The Content validity and face validity of the questionnaire data was established as described under the instruments section.

After completing the demographic information, participants were asked to watch the short film twice: once with the ‘neutral’ AD and once with the ‘emotive’ version. Neutral AD adhered to ADLAB guidelines, maintaining objectivity by providing straightforward descriptions without emotional embellishments. In contrast, the emotive version took into account the scene’s intended message by incorporating emotional language to describe the film’s main elements—characters, scenes, and actions. This version included additional emotional details of the characters’ actions, emotions, and scenes, highlighted through the narrator’s expressive voice. This approach aimed to convey not only the visual elements but also the emotional nuances of the film, thereby enhancing the audience’s enjoyment and overall viewing experience. To counterbalance the effect of order of viewing the film, half of the participants were presented the neutral AD first and then the emotive edition to rate. The other half were presented with the editions in reversed order.

The participants were asked to watch each edition and rate the quality of the AD in terms of the eight parameters, each formulated in a single questionnaire item. Based on the available options, they could rate each variable on a scale of 1 (very poor), 2 (poor), 3 (fair), 4 (good), and 5 (excellent). This phase of the study was run on the assumption that the collected questionnaire data is interval (Field, 2024). Therefore, the questionnaire data were analyzed using the inferential and descriptive statistics, including exploratory factor analysis (EFA), scale reliability analysis (Pallant, 2016) on IBM SPSS software package.

Results

In this section, to address the research questions, the findings are presented. The questionnaire data helps compare the perception and ratings of the two different AD styles by the sample of the Iranian blind and visually impaired audiences in terms of the various parameters. Given that AD reception has not been previously investigated in the Iranian context, the aim of this study was to explore the perception of emotions in two distinct AD styles: neutral and emotive. The results strongly support the idea that emotive AD provides a more favorable experience for users, enhancing their perception of emotions.

With regard to appropriateness of the collected data for exploratory factor analysis, the results indicated that the value of Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy was .90, which was optimal (Kaiser, 1974) and the Bartlett’s test was significant (p < 0.05). These results affirmed the appropriateness of the 8-variable dataset for exploratory factor analysis and establishing the construct validity of the results. Based on Kaiser’s criterion, only a single-factor solution was recommended with an eigenvalue larger than 1, explaining a total of approximately 87.22% of the variance in the dataset.

As can be seen in Table 2, our only factor was labeled Overall Film Engagement by considering the nature of the highly loading variables on the emerged factor. Each variable loaded highly on this factor, confirming that variables are all facets of a single underlying dimension of Overall Film Engagement.

Table 2 Factor solution and internal consistency reliability values.
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After specifying the latent constructs of the data set, and thereby the factors, a scale reliability analysis was conducted to measure and establish the internal consistency of the sole category of variables. As shown in Table 2, the Cronbach’s Alpha value for the factor was approximately 0.97, indicating excellent data reliability (Pallant, 2016). These outcomes suggest that the results of the designed instrument demonstrated construct validity and internal consistence, as confirmed by exploratory factor analysis and scale reliability statistics.

The questionnaire data which reflected the comparison of the versions by the participants was analyzed using t-test procedure on IBM SPSS and the results are presented in Table 3. The details are reported in the following:

Table 3 Results of t-Test for comparison of the parameters across the two AD styles.
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In terms of parameter 1, visualization, between the rating scores of the neutral style (M = 3.56, SD = 1.21) and the emotive style (M = 4.20, SD = .96), there was a significant difference (p < 0.05). In terms of parameter 2, enjoyment, between the rating scores of the neutral style (M = 3.20, SD = 1.35) and the emotive style (M = 4.30, SD = .92), there was a significant difference (p < 0.05). In terms of parameter 3, transfer of emotion, between the rating scores of the neutral style (M = 2.78, SD = 1.40) and the emotive style (M = 4.40, SD = 0.80), there was a significant difference (p < 0.05). In terms of parameter 4, following the story, between the rating scores of the neutral style (M = 2.87, M = 1.30), and the emotive style (M = 4.18, SD = 0.90) there was a significant difference (p < 0.05). In terms of parameter 5, narration speed, between the rating scores of the neutral style (M = 2.75, M = 1.05), and the emotive style (M = 4.17, SD = .85) there was not a significant difference (p > .05). In terms of parameter 6, AD script, between the rating scores of the neutral style (M = 3.71, SD = 1.07), and the emotive style (M = 3.61, SD = 1.28) there was not a significant difference (p >.05). In terms of parameter 7, narrator’s expression, between the rating scores of the neutral style (M = 3.23, SD = 1.47), and the emotive style (M = 4.21, SD = .96) there was a significant difference (p < .05). In terms of parameter 8, characters’ emotion recognition, between the rating scores of the neutral style (M = 2.43, SD = 1.02), and the emotive style (M = 4.50, SD = .67) there was a significant difference (p < .05).

The data gathered from the questionnaire (Table 3) addressed eight elements identified as most influential based on participant interviews. In addressing the first research question, participants were asked to compare the neutral and emotive AD styles. Fifty-four out of seventy respondents indicated that they could visualize the emotive version more effectively. In terms of film enjoyment, the majority (57 out of 70) favored the emotive version. In response to the question about conveying feelings, over half of the participants found the emotive short film most effective for eliciting emotions. Approximately 57 out of 70 participants reported that they could follow the story more effectively with the emotive version. This feedback included a notable comment from one participant who said, “It is as if the narrator is the eye itself”, highlighting the strong impact of the emotive narration on their viewing experience. More than half of the participants indicated that the speed of the emotive narration was perceived as high, whereas the neutral narration was deemed appropriately paced. This observation is understandable, as the narrator in the emotive version increased the speed to incorporate essential information between dialogues at the film’s beginning. Furthermore, the AD scripts for the emotive version were more frequent, likely due to the more extensive use of adjectives and adverbs to provide vivid descriptions of emotions and scenes. Question 7 focused on the narrator’s emotional expression in conveying the film’s sentiment. A significant portion of the respondents, 48 out of 70, chose responses ranging from good to excellent. The variable of emotion recognition received the highest rating from participants (63 out of 70) for the emotive AD style (Table 4).

Table 4 Participants’ response distribution.
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Regarding the second research question, the participants were asked to indicate their general preference for neutral or emotive AD style. As indicated in Fig. 2, a total of 51 participants preferred the emotive style, while 19 participants preferred the neutral one.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Participants’ preferences for AD style.

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Alt-text: Bar graph describing participants' preferences between emotive and neutral AD styles. The X-axis shows the two AD styles: emotive and neutral. The Y-axis represents the number of participants, ranging from 0 to 60 in intervals of 10. The majority of participants preferred the emotive style, while a smaller number preferred the neutral one.Concerning the third research question, the statistical results also revealed a significant difference (P < 0.05) between the two AD styles concerning visualization, enjoyment, transfer of emotion, following the story, narrator’s expression, and emotion recognition. This suggests that conveying emotions through the narrator’s tone and expression in the emotive version allows visually impaired film audiences to visualize the film more effectively compared to the neutral style. Additionally, the intended audiences can recognize emotional scenes more easily, akin to the experience of sighted people, which is not possible to that extent with the neutral AD style.

Discussions

This study examined the impact of emotive and neutral AD styles on audience perception and preferences. The findings showed a clear preference for the emotive AD style, particularly in parameters like visualization, enjoyment, transfer of emotion, following the story, narrator’s expression, and emotion recognition.

As previously stated by the interviewees, parameters such as the expression of emotions by the narrator’s tone and the use of more adjectives can increase their perception of emotions (Rai et al., 2010). And the existence of these parameters in the emotive style could have influenced their choice of preferred one. Consequently, contrary to those who emphasize objectivity and neutrality, subjective and emotive narration on emotional scenes is widely accepted by Iranian visually impaired audiences. The outcomes are in accordance with the results reported by Ramos Caro (2016), Benecke and Dosch (2004), and Morisset and Gonant (2008), indicating that the subjective rendition provokes a stronger emotional reaction in the audience.

The necessity of AD services for blind and visually impaired audiences is now widely acknowledged. Concerning emotional and visual scenes, our collected data underscores the significance of emotive AD for elucidating emotional and visual information that cannot be deduced from the film soundtrack alone. In such cases, incorporating emotive details, such as lexical choices and the narrator’s tone, can significantly impact the audience’s emotional response. The study’s findings indicate that an emotive version of AD is preferred to a neutral version, aligning with the work of other researchers such as Fernández et al. (2015), Ramos Caro (2016), Walczak and Fryer (2017a), Bardini (2020), and Jekat and Carrer (2018). However, the use of emotional details in AD requires careful consideration, as some participants criticized them for exaggerating emotional scenes, while others regarded them as a perfect selection. Therefore, it is recommended that audio describers and narrators should be careful about language selection and narration. Additionally, the study proposes that each genre presents specific challenges regarding emotional expression, which should be addressed on a case-by-case basis. This aligns with findings from other studies (Braun, 2008; Poethe, 2005; Ramos Caro & López, 2014). In other words, the results indicate that the features of each film genre (or specific film scenes) should determine the basic details in AD’s content, such as how much information should be added in AD (Mazur & Chmiel, 2016) or the lexical choices that support the adaptive rules (Vercauteren, 2007), defining different instructions for each scene. Furthermore, it appears that AD products in Iran are mostly compatible with ADLAB guidelines, but they may not necessarily meet users’ needs and expectations. This result underscores the need to revise ADLAB’s guidelines (Ramos Caro & López, 2014).

The study acknowledges that the sample size of questionnaire participants is limited, and thus, the findings may not be conclusive. Nevertheless, the study emphasizes the importance of audio describers taking control of the narration and creating a new version of AD style, namely emotive AD, that meets the needs and expectations of visually impaired audiences to accommodate differences between various types of films and audiences. Such research can offer valuable insights into how visually impaired individuals recognize and visualize films, informing the development of AD guidelines that ensure high-quality AD products that satisfy their needs. Overall, the study makes significant contributions to the field of AD and calls for further research into alternative AD styles that cater to the unique needs of visually impaired individuals. This contribution is anticipated to serve as a starting point for further research on the emotional impact of AD and the perception of subjective or narrative AD styles.

Considering the limitations of the study, first, the participants had different tastes and tendencies, and it will never be possible to please everyone. What some participants praise is the target of other participants’ criticism. However, this is precisely why it is vital to investigate large-scale reception studies, as they help us discover an audience’s inclinations and preferences. Second, regarding participants, it is typically difficult to reach a large enough number of audiences who are blind or visually impaired to offer insightful feedback when conducting reception studies. Another difficulty is that we should carefully select a representative sample in age, types of visual impairment, and AD exposure. Regarding study design challenges using short films instead of feature films, artificial examples made explicitly for the study in AD reception studies, can also be challenging (Chmiel & Mazur, 2012a; Mazur & Chmiel, 2016a). Despite having the questionnaire accessible online is an option to consider by blind and visually impaired people, we are quite skeptical that a long questionnaire would be filled in completely without any assistance. Our research is not an exception and has faced the problems and challenges mentioned.

Since this study is among the first studies on AD reception in Iran, it is recommended that further research be undertaken with different samples and diverse physiological measurements, (e.g., heart variability, Appelhans & Luecken, 2006; cortisol secretion, Sudheimer, 2009; galvanic skin response, Wiens et al., 2003), and target other emotions (happiness, rage, surprise). This would provide a clearer understanding of the influence of different AD styles may have on the emotional reception of blind and visually impaired film audiences (Ramos Caro & López, 2014).

Conclusion

This study, to a certain extent, provides good results about AD in Iran in order to improve the quality of AD products, the same as other countries in the world (Bardini, 2020; Fryer & Walczak, 2020; Ramos Caro, 2015; Ramos Caro & López, 2014). This study aimed to compare the reception of two different AD styles: neutral and emotive AD. The emotive version elicits a more robust emotional reaction in blind and visually impaired film audience than neutral one. Moreover, the dataset collected by the questionnaires depicted those visually impaired participants enjoying the addition of subjective and emotional descriptions by the narrator. In this regard, the results from the study can further researching in this field or start accepting the recent suggestions that demand narrators more involvement and recommend ADs that include subjective and emotional details rather than a more objective AD (Finbow, 2010; Kruger, 2010). The emotive style is a viable option that should be considered, although we could not come to a strong conclusion due to the small number of participants. It’s time to ponder other styles in addition to the objective style and try to create a new version that satisfies the users’ needs and expectations.