Table 4 The results of the moderator effect size analysis.

From: The effectiveness of technical-supported collaboration in promoting students’ learning outcomes: a meta-analysis based on empirical literature

Moderating variable	Variable type	Effect quantity	Effect size	95% Confidence interval		Heterogeneity test		Two-tailed test	Inter-group effect
Moderating variable	Variable type	Effect quantity	Effect size	Lower limit	Upper limit	I²	df(P)	Z (P)	Chi² (P)
Learning stage	Primary school or lower	35	0.62	0.45	0.79	77%	34^**	7.17^**	6.68
	Middle school	5	0.36	0.12	0.60	10%	4	2.94^**
	High school	4	0.46	0.20	0.71	22%	3	3.45^**
	University or above	81	0.79	0.66	0.92	82%	80^**	12.07^**
	Overall effect size	0.71[0.61,0.80], Z = 14.36 (p < 0.01)
Group size	2–3 person	16	0.79	0.63	0.95	67%	15^**	9.81^**	14.07^**
	4–6 person	79	0.59	0.54	0.64	81%	78^**	22.44^**
	7–10 person	21	0.66	0.57	0.76	84%	21^**	13.73^**
	More than 10 person	9	0.37	0.19	0.54	19%	8	4.07^**
	Overall effect size	0.61[0.56,0.65], Z = 28.12 (p < 0.01)
Intervention duration	0–1 weeks	13	0.70	0.46	0.85	5%	12	5.36^**	13.83^**
	2–4 weeks	21	0.54	0.44	0.63	66%	20^**	10.89^**
	5–12 weeks	29	0.60	0.51	0.69	88%	28^**	13.71^**
	More than 12 weeks	62	0.67	0.61	0.73	79%	61^**	21.67^**
	Overall effect size	0.61[0.56,0.65], Z = 28.12 (p < 0.01)
Collaborative field	Formal environment	107	0.57	0.53	0.62	72%	106^**	24.9^**	3.17
	Informal environment	18	0.86	0.74	0.99	92%	17^**	13.78^***	3.17
	Overall effect size	0.61[0.56,0.65], Z = 28.12 (p < 0.01)
Technical tool	network communication technology	16	0.52	0.36	0.67	49%	15^*	6.60^**	3.14
	dynamic presentation technology	21	1.01	0.67	1.34	87%	20^**	5.83^**
	shared and co-built technology	15	0.87	0.49	1.25	87%	14^**	4.5^**
	hardware technology	26	0.49	0.32	0.67	75%	25^**	5.61^**
	digital learning platform	47	0.75	0.60	0.90	75%	46^**	9.76^**
	Overall effect size	0.71[0.61,0.80], Z = 14.36 (p < 0.01)
Subject area	Chinese	6	0.47	0.27	0.66	1%	5	4.66^**	25.43^**
	Math	13	0.54	0.32	0.75	66%	12^**	4.93^**
	English	17	0.60	0.31	0.89	84%	16^**	4.02^**
	computer	10	0.51	0.27	0.75	69%	9^**	4.09^**
	medical science	3	0.85	0.08	1.61	90%	2^**	2.17
	Education	45	0.92	0.73	1.10	80%	44^**	9.71^**
	science	26	0.82	0.54	1.02	83%	25^**	6.38^**
	Other fields	5	0.33	0.15	0.51	5%	4	3.69^**
	Overall effect size	0.71[0.61,0.80], Z = 14.36 (p < 0.01)

^*p < 0.05, ^**p < 0.01, ^***p < 0.001.

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Table 4 The results of the moderator effect size analysis.

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