Introduction

The concept of environmental education has emerged against the backdrop of urbanisation and environmental degradation. In the 1960s, Stapp (1969) argued that there was a vital need for an educational approach that effectively educates people regarding their relationships with the total environment. This new approach, designed to reach citizens of all ages, is called environmental education. The development of environmental education has incorporated the significant influence of some of the greatest thinkers, writers, and educators in the 18th and 19th centuries, notably Goethe, Rousseau, Humboldt, Haeckel, Froebel, Dewey and Montessori (Palmer 1998: 5). In 1968, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) organised a Biosphere Conference in Paris, and this Conference called for the development of curriculum materials relating to studying the environment for all levels of education, the promotion of technical training, and the stimulation of global awareness of environmental problems (Palmer 1998: 5). A seminal milestone in the annals of environmental education was the United Nations Conference on Human Environment in Stockholm in June 1972. This conference made it clear that education utilising the findings of science and technology should play a leading role in creating awareness and a better understanding of environmental problems. The Declaration of the United Nations Conference on Human Environment (also known as the Stockholm Declaration) was adopted at this conference. In 1977, UNESCO and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) held an intergovernmental conference on environmental education in Tbilisi in the former Soviet Union. At the Tbilisi conference, the Declaration of the Tbilisi Inter-governmental Conference on Environmental Education (the Tbilisi Declaration) (UNESCO 1977) was published, addressing environmental education around the world. The Tbilisi Declaration notes that the concept of environmental education is knowledge-based, and puts forward the goal of environmental education, including awareness, knowledge, skills, attitude and participation. The declaration expands the content and methods of environmental education, introduces environmental education into a broader space, and constructs a basic framework for the development of global environmental education.

In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) issued Our Common Future (WCED 1987), according to which environmental education should be integrated into formal education curricula at all levels to raise students’ sense of responsibility for the environment by instructing them on how to monitor, protect, and improve the environment. In 1992, the United Nations put forward the United Nations Conference on Environment & Development Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 3 to 14 June 1992 - AGENDA 21 (commonly known as Agenda 21) in the United Nations Conference on Environmental & Development, which made environmental education a necessary general knowledge for the citizens of the world and an international responsibility. Agenda 21 points out that education is critical to promoting sustainable development, and it can improve people’s ability to deal with environmental and development problems.

These documents underscore the imperative to translate environmental awareness into actionable educational practices. However, the efficacy of such documents ultimately hinges on their implementation within concrete pedagogical tools. This is where textbooks, as the primary conduit of formal curricula, assume a pivotal role. By systematising knowledge and values endorsed by global consensus, textbooks operationalise the theoretical principles of environmental education into teachable content, thereby bridging the gap between policy rhetoric and classroom reality. In this sense, school textbooks play a vital role in shaping our worldview and are commonly perceived as official, authoritative, precise, and dependable resources for the purposes of teaching and learning (Dove 1998; Fuchs and Bock 2018; Hickman and Porfilio 2012; Pinto 2007). It is through textbooks that the official curriculum is enacted. Thus, in this paper, through a contextualised study of Chinese language textbooks and environmental education in China, we explore the important link between language education and environmental education in the hope of understanding how education might promote the development of environmental awareness.

The instrumental role of textbooks in operationalising environmental education, however, extends beyond the systematisation of knowledge. While their function as policy-aligned pedagogical tools ensures the structural delivery of curricula, the ultimate goal of nurturing environmentally responsible citizens depends crucially on shaping learners’ emotional orientations. This affective dimension is not peripheral but central to environmental education: theoretical awareness of ecological principles must coalesce with a cultivated sense of connection to nature to motivate sustainable behaviours. In this research, our focus will be on how the attitudes expressed in the language textbooks contribute to fostering the love for nature and the awareness of environmental protection in school children. We agree with Frijda (1999) and believe that human beings have the motivation or readiness for changes in interaction with the environment, and emotions motivate and activate particular behaviours. Moreover, emotions operate primarily in the relationship between an individual and their environment, and seem to be a central factor boosting care for nature of human beings (Milton 2002: 3–4). Hence, fostering positive human emotions towards nature through environmental education emerges as a viable strategy to address the prevailing environmental crisis.

Since ancient times, human life has been largely enriched by its affiliation with the natural world. Wilson (1984) adopts the term biophilia to define the innate tendency of human beings to relate themselves to life and natural processes. The biophilia hypothesis argues that our dependence on nature extends from some simple issues of material and physical sustenance to our craving for aesthetic, intellectual, cognitive and even spiritual meaning satisfaction (Kellert and Wilson 1993: 1). In other words, biophilia is a biological need inscribed in human genes. The biophilia hypothesis proposes nine dimensions of biophilia tendencies which refer to the fundamental aspects of human biological basis for valuing and affiliating with the natural world, including the utilitarian, naturalistic, ecologistic-scientific, aesthetic, symbolic, humanistic, moralistic, dominionistic, and negativistic valuations of nature (Kellert and Wilson 1993: 42–47). Moreover, the perspectives on the world, the knowledge, assumptions and desires of human beings are largely determined by the cultural context in which they live (Milton 2002: 1–2).

If the biophilia hypothesis provides a biological blueprint for humanity’s emotional bond with nature, the actualisation of this bond in educational contexts depends on how such affective orientations are linguistically constructed. Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) has offered profound insights into the examination of linguistic features in texts. SFL holds that language not only construes human experience but also enacts interpersonal relationships. Appraisal framework, which is an extension to the SFL study of interpersonal meanings, aims to interpret how writers or speakers express their attitudes and how they position their readers or listeners to do likewise (Martin and White 2005: 1). It attends to three axes along which the speaker’s or writer’s intersubjective stance may vary (Martin and White 2005: 1). The three axes are the three subsystems of the Appraisal framework: Attitude, Engagement, and Graduation. According to Martin and White (2005: 35), the subsystem Attitude is about feelings, including emotional reactions, judgements of behaviour and evaluation of things; the subsystem Engagement is concerned with sourcing attitudes and the play of voices around opinions; and the third subsystem Gradation deals with grading phenomena whereby feelings are amplified and categories sharpened or blurred. Appraisal framework has been applied in deciphering the attitudes in educational discourses, for example, to investigate the application of appraisal devices, especially the attitude types in narrative texts from English textbooks (Magfiroh et al. 2021) and to analyse the representation of humanistic values in the English electronic school textbooks for senior high schools in Indonesia (Isti’anah 2015). Other studies have applied approaches enlightened by the Appraisal framework and other approaches to investigate language features, values, genres, etc., in textbooks. In this research, the Appraisal framework will be adopted to conduct quantitative and qualitative analysis of attitudes towards nature in the selected textbooks.

Environmental education in China and Chinese language textbooks

Environmental education in China

China’s environmental education started in 1973 (Wang and Xie 2013) and gained momentum in the following years against the backdrop of prominent environmental problems amid the process of China’s industrialisation. Li (2005) streamlines the early stage of environmental education in China since the year 1978. According to Li (2005: 28–29), the Key Points of Environmental Protection Work, which was initiated by the State Council Environmental Protection Leading Group, was approved in the year 1978. This document puts forward the requirements of establishing the Chinese Academy of Environmental Sciences, formulating environmental protection laws and regulations, and increasing the teaching content of environmental protection knowledge in ordinary middle schools and primary schools. Adopted by the National People’s Congress in 1979, the Environmental Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China (Pilot phase) sets clear provisions for environmental education, noting that the country would encourage the development of environmental protection, science, and education, strengthen the research and development of environmental protection science and technology, raise the scientific and technological level of environmental protection, and publicise scientific knowledge of environmental protection.

During this period, the Environmental Protection Leading Group of the State Council, in collaboration with relevant departments, formulated the Draft Environmental Education Development Plan, integrating environmental education (EE) into national education frameworks. Subsequently, the then-State Education Commission formally incorporated EE content into the revised curricula and syllabi for primary and secondary schools. Consequently, environmental protection has been established as a fundamental national policy in China, and EE has gained increasing recognition throughout society. Annually, the Ministry of Education initiates nationwide EE campaigns implemented across all levels of schooling. Accordingly, relevant documents and policies guiding and supporting EE are regularly issued to facilitate its systematic organisation within the national education system.

Official management of textbooks in China

The educational significance of teaching materials is principally manifested in their dual role as both a vital knowledge and skill acquisition for students, as well as a crucial carrier of mainstream ideologies. Quality teaching materials not only furnish students with precise and dependable knowledge along with the latest updates on societal advancements but also ignite students’ curiosity, fostering their interest in learning and cultivating sound learning habits and critical thinking skills.

China has consistently attached significant value to the process of textbook design. In accordance with the Education Law of the People’s Republic of China, China implements a nine-year compulsory education system, which includes a primary school period of six years and a middle school period of three years. This legislation further stipulates that compulsory education in China must adhere to the national education policy, instil the principles of quality education, enhance educational standards, and facilitate comprehensive development in terms of ethics, intellect, and physical well-being for children and adolescents. This legislation also mandates that textbooks adhere to the national education policy and curriculum standards, with content focusing on essential foundational knowledge and skills. Furthermore, China follows a thorough examination and approval process for textbooks, which is regulated by the Education Administrative Department under the State Council. Textbooks that have not undergone this approval process are not permitted for publication or adoption in any educational institution.

In addition to implementing legal measures to regulate textbook design, evaluation, and approval in China, the Chinese Ministry of Education has established a Textbook Bureau, which is tasked with devising the national plan for textbook construction, as well as an annual work plan. It is responsible for coordinating expert involvement in developing curriculum frameworks and standards, establishing and enhancing the fundamental systems and norms for textbook creation, guiding the development of management textbooks, and promoting the integration of information technology in textbook management.

Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, a total of seven sets of primary school Chinese language textbooks (hereafter, PSCL textbooks) have been used throughout the country (Chen 2019). The current nationwide edition of the PSCL textbooks is compiled by expert teams commissioned by the Ministry of Education. This standardisation initiative originated from the March 2012 directive issued by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, which mandated enhanced textbook development for three compulsory subjects: Morality and Law, Chinese Language, and History.

In compliance with this policy, the Ministry of Education mobilised specialists to design the PSCL series as part of this triad. The resulting textbook series, systematically structured across twelve volumes for Grades 1 through 6, was adopted nationwide in Chinese primary schools commencing the autumn semester of the 2019 academic year (Chen 2019).

Chinese language textbooks and environmental education

The Ministry of Education released the revised Chinese Language Curriculum Standards for Compulsory Education (2022) (MOE 2022), explicitly affirming the subject’s foundational role in compulsory education. The document positions language as humanity’s primary medium for communication and information dissemination. Crucially, Chinese language study establishes essential foundations for interdisciplinary learning while critically shaping students’ worldviews, values, and life perspectives. As the primary vehicle for transmitting values and cognitive schemata, the Chinese language curriculum is intended to cultivate students’ understanding of human-nature interdependencies by embedding environmental ethics within textual narratives, rhetorical structures, and discursive practices. This integration not only reinforces scientific literacy about ecological systems but also shapes affective orientations toward sustainability, positioning language proficiency as both a cognitive tool and an ethical compass for environmental stewardship.

Scholarly recognition of language textbooks’ environmental education function emerged decades ago, with analyses of children’s educational literature addressing this role dating to the 1990s (Wilson and Smith 1996; Zelezny 1999). Current studies addressing environmental issues in textbooks have concentrated primarily on EFL (English as a Foreign Language) textbooks from researchers’ home countries (Al-Jamal and Al-Omari 2014; Cristovão et al. 2022; Kirova and Stavreva Veselinovska 2004; Zahoor and Janjua 2020), including China-based studies (Wang 2021; Wang and Zainal 2024; Xiong 2014). Research examining environmental content in Chinese language textbooks within China remains limited. Notable work by Curdt-Christiansen (2021) employs intertextual analysis to investigate environmental literacy in primary textbooks, examining topic selection, discursive positioning of students as environmental actors, and textual awareness-building strategies. Complementary research explores ecological representations in mainstream primary textbooks (Ma 2024) and environmental depictions in textbooks for students of China’s Korean ethnic minority group (Lee 2023), extending practical implications for pedagogical design and textbook development.

Despite existing scholarship examining ecological values in domestic textbooks in China, systematic investigations into how these values are cultivated within primary and secondary educational materials remain scarce. Current research in China exhibits two predominant characteristics. First, research volume is notably limited: CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) searches combining subject terms such as “primary and secondary school textbooks” and “ecological perspectives” yield fewer than ten relevant core journal articles. Second, existing studies primarily employ descriptive content analysis and frequency counts of ecological knowledge across subject areas (Wu and Guo 2020; Yue and Ma 2022; Zhang and Yang 2022). Only a limited number of studies adopt linguistic or semiotic approaches for discourse analysis (e.g. He and Shen 2023; Zeng and Hong 2021). A closely relevant study is He and Shen (2023), which conducts an ecolinguistic analysis of animal representations in nationally adopted primary Chinese textbooks, revealing that the representations of animals principally reflect a people-oriented ecological view. Similarly, Zeng and Hong (2021) apply Martin and White’s (2005) Appraisal framework and Economou’s (2009) visual semiosis principles to analyse attitudes in Chinese primary moral education textbooks. The findings of both studies offer significant implications for textbook compilation and are important inspirations for the present research.

Research design

Research questions

Attitudes toward nature and the biophilia tendencies constructed in primary school Chinese language textbooks have the potential to influence students’ environmental awareness and finally guide their behaviours and actions. The present study aims to answer the following questions: (1) What environmental attitudes are represented in the textbooks, and how are these attitudes constructed through language? (2) What biophilic tendencies are fostered and reinforced in the textbooks? (3) How might these attitudes and biophilic tendencies potentially shape the development of environmental awareness among the younger generation in China?

Data collection

The data of this study is selected from the most recently revised version of primary school Chinese language textbooks published by People’s Education Press. Within each academic year at the primary school level throughout China, a structured framework of two semesters is established, with each semester aligned with a specific textbook. The designated textbook for the first semester of Grade One in primary school is referred to as 1a in this study, while the textbook utilised in the second semester of Grade One is coded as 1b. Similarly, the textbook labelled as 2a corresponds to the first semester of Grade Two, with 2b representing the second semester of Grade Two. Consequently, the PSCL textbooks span from 1a to 6b, encompassing a total of twelve books (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
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Photo image of the primary-school Chinese-language textbooks.

Data selection standards are developed upon the concept of the ecosystem (Odum 1969; Odum and Barrett 1971; Tansley 1935). According to Odum (1969), “the ecosystem, or ecological system, is considered to be a unit of biological organisation made up of all of the organisms in a given area (that is, “community”) interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to characteristic trophic structure and material cycles within the system”. This definition of ecosystem views the natural world as the physical environment and organisms living in the environment. Based on this definition, texts concerning the physical environment, non-human animals, plants and human beings and their relationships are selected from the PSCL textbooks, and a corpus of relevant texts totalling 42,364 Chinese characters is built.

Analytical methods and procedures

This study is to explore attitudes toward nature in the texts of the PSCL textbooks from the three domains defined in the Appraisal framework, namely Affect, Judgement and Appreciation. As was mentioned earlier, Affect deals with resources for construing emotional reactions; Judgement deals with resources for assessing behaviour according to various normative principles; and Appreciation looks into resources for construing the value of things, including natural phenomena and semiosis (Martin and Rose 2007; Martin and White 2005: 35–36). Attitudes can either be inscribed in discourse through the use of attitudinal lexis or invoked by the selection of ideational meanings even in the absence of attitudinal lexis (Martin and White 2005: 62–68). Inscribed attitude is easy to identify, for it is expressed by attitudinal lexis. With regard to invoked attitudes, invocations can be broadly divided into three types: those where the attitudinal stance is activated by unevaluated experiential tokens (termed “afforded” attitude); those where it is signalled by evaluative meanings such as intensification (graduation) or counter-expectancy (termed “flagged” attitude), and those where lexical metaphor activates the positive or negative assessment (termed “provoked” attitude) (Don 2016). In addition, inscribed attitudes and invoked attitudes interact in some cases. Martin and White (2005: 63) argue that the inscriptions act as signposts which tell us how to read the ideational selections that surround them. The various strategies for inscribing and invoking attitude (2005: 76) are outlined in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
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Summary of strategies for inscribing and invoking attitudes (Martin and White 2005: 67).

In the present study, UAM Corpus Tool 3.3 is used to assist with our identification and calculation of the inscriptions and invocations of attitudes toward nature. Taking categories of attitudes and their realisations into consideration, the following tags are used to annotate attitudinal resources in the corpus.

Affect-ins = inscribed Affect

Affect-inv = invoked Affect

Judgement-ins = inscribed Judgement

Judgement-inv = invoked Judgement

Appreciation-ins = inscribed Appreciation

Appreciation-inv = invoked Appreciation

Based on the findings of quantitative analysis and empowered by the biophilia hypothesis (Kellert and Wilson 1993: 59), which defines nine aspects of human-nature relationships (Tables 1 and 2), qualitative analysis is conducted to further decipher the human-nature relationship constructed in the PSCL textbooks.

Table 1 A typology of biophilia values (Kellert and Wilson 1993: 59).
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Table 2 An analysis of attitudinal resources.
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The nine biophilic tendencies, each with its own distinctive inclinations, such as naturalistic, aesthetic, humanistic, and negative tendencies, possess a profound and intricate connection with human emotions and sentiments.

Analysis and findings

With the help of the UAM Corpus Tool 3.3, we summarise the different kinds of attitudes in the corpus and their proportions in the following.

It can be found that Appreciations account for 57% of the total, Affects account for 32% and Judgements 11% (Fig. 3). Linguistic devices applied to the construction of these attitudes are further examined in the subsequent sections.

Fig. 3
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The proportion of affect, judgement and appreciation.

Appreciations of nature: we live in a wonderful world

Martin and White (2005: 59) suggest that identification of Appreciation can be done using the frame “person considers something appreciation”. In the PSCL textbooks, an extensive amount of discourse is dedicated to extolling the virtues and beauty of the world we inhabit, rather than highlighting its less desirable aspects. There is an imbalance between positive and negative Appreciation. The physical environment, animals and plants are predominantly positively evaluated. For instance, a search for the word “美 (měi, ‘beautiful’)” in the corpus yields a frequency of 77, while the frequency for the word “丑 (chǒu, ‘ugly’)” is 0. Similarly, the word frequency for “净 (jìng, ‘clean’)” is 11, whereas the frequencies for “脏 (zāng, ‘dirty’)” and “污染 (wūrǎn, ‘polluted’)” are both 0. As shown in Fig. 3, Appreciations account for the largest share of attitudinal resources.

Furthermore, inscribed Appreciations and invoked Appreciations interact with one another to positively appreciate nature. The inscribed Appreciations work as signposts, explicitly telling readers how to appreciate this phenomenon, and the invoked Appreciations add more angles for readers to appreciate the appraised. In our data, inscribed Appreciations account for 66% and invoked Appreciations account for 34% as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4
Fig. 4The alternative text for this image may have been generated using AI.
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The proportion of inscribed appreciation and invoked appreciation.

The widespread incorporation of inscribed appreciations significantly enhances the readability and comprehensibility of the texts, considering the age of the young children. These appreciations encompass a broad spectrum, including the physical environment and the flora and fauna in nature. Such expressions foster a stronger inclination towards the aesthetic and humanistic facets of biophilia. The following examples showcase a harmonious blend of inscribed and invoked appreciations towards nature, with the appreciations realised through diverse elements of the clause.

The appreciations presented in Examples 1–3 are primarily constructed using adjectives, accompanied by a range of other linguistic devices.

Example 1. 乡下人家, 不论什么时候, 不论什么季节, 都有一道独特、迷人的风景。 (textbook 4b)

Xiāngxià rénjiā, búlùn shénme shíhou, búlùn shénme jìjié, dōu yǒu yí dào dútè, mírén de fēngjǐng.

‘There is always a unique and charming scenery at any time in any season in a rural household.’

In this example, the scenery of a rural household is the target of Appreciation, which is inscribed in epithets “独特的 (dútè de, ‘unique’)” and “迷人的 (mírén de, ‘charming’)”. Hood and Martin (2007: 753) argue that the scope of time or space can be seen as a part of graduation, which could invoke attitudes, so the phrases “at any time” and “in any season” invoke Appreciation for the beauty of the household by strengthening it, upgrading the force. This example reflects the aesthetic tendency in biophilia, where the use of these adjectives underscores the sheer joy that humans derive from the harmonious and pleasing appearance of the landscape.

Example 2. 路的一边是田野, 葱葱绿绿的, 非常可爱, 像一片柔软的绿毯。 (textbook 2b)

Lù de yībiān shì tiányě, cōngcōng lǜlǜ de, fēicháng kě’ài, xiàng yí piàn róuruǎn de lǜtǎn..

‘Fields are on one side of the road, lush, green and very lovely, like a soft green blanket.’

In this example, the adjectives “葱葱 (cōngcong, ‘lush’)” and “绿 (lǜ, ‘green’)” deployed in reference to the colour and condition of the fields, offer an indication of the lush growth of the crops, thereby affording a positive Appreciation towards the fields themselves and delivering an aesthetic tendency of biophilia. The adjective “可爱的 (kě'ài de, ‘lovely’)” is an explicit Appreciation of the fields, and the prepositional phrase “像一片柔软的绿毯 (xiàng yí piàn róuruǎn de lǜ tǎn, ‘like a soft green blanket’)” is a lexical metaphor which imbues the text with a poetic elegance that elicits appreciation for the fields. In addition, the appreciation bestowed upon the fields and nature apparently stems from the author’s profound love for them, embodying the humanistic tendency of biophilia. The prepositional phrase “像 (xiàng, ‘look like’) + noun” is applied to provoke Appreciation. Martin and White (2005: 64) argue that “ideational meaning can be used not just to invite but to provoke an attitudinal response in readers. This is one function of lexical metaphor”. Hood and Martin (2007: 745) also argue that lexical metaphor is a regularly deployed device to provoke evaluation. In the PSCL textbooks, there are a large number of lexical metaphors provoking Appreciation of the physical environment, plants and non-human animals, such as “田野像金色的海洋 (tiányě xiàng jīnsè de hǎiyáng, ‘fields are like golden oceans’)” in textbook 3a, “地上草如茵, 两岸柳如眉 (dìshang cǎo rú yīn, liǎng'àn liǔ rú méi, ‘grass on the ground is like a green carpet, and willows on both sides are like eyebrows’)”, etc.

Example 3. 美丽的菊花在秋雨里频频点头。 (textbook 3a)

Měilì de júhuā zài qiūyǔ lǐ pínpín diǎntóu.

‘The beautiful chrysanthemum nodded in the autumn rain again and again.’

In this example, the target of Appreciation is “菊花 (júhuā, ‘chrysanthemum’)” and the Appreciation lies in the epithet “美丽的 (měilìde, ‘beautiful’)”, showing an aesthetic response toward plants. According to Kellert and Wilson (1993: 49), the complexity of the aesthetic response is suggested by its wide-ranging expression from the contours of a mountain landscape to the ambient colours of a setting sun to the fleeting vitality of the breaching whale. Living organisms often function as the centrally valued element in human aesthetic experience of nature. Deeply rooted in this aesthetic response is the love of humans towards nature. Furthermore, the chrysanthemum is personified in this example through the behaviour of “diǎntóu (nodding)”, treating plants as sentient beings, which can also be regarded as an invoked appreciation.

In the PSCL textbooks, Appreciations of plants are also widely inscribed in connotations of nouns, as shown in Examples 4 and 5.

Example 4. 我们能看到植物生长的奇迹。 (textbook 3b)

Wǒmen néng kàndào zhíwù shēngzhǎng de qíjì.

‘We can see the miracle of growth of plants.’

In this example, Appreciation of the growth of plants is inscribed in the noun “奇迹 (qíjì, ‘miracle’)”. On this occasion, the natural phenomenon – the growth of plants is highly appraised as an unusual and marvellous event. Similarly, in the following example, the Appreciation of the animal is inscribed in the connotation of the noun.

Example 5. 黄昏的空中偶见白鹭的低飞, 更是乡居生活中的一种恩惠。 (textbook 5a)

Huánghūn de kōngzhōng ǒujiàn báilù de dīfēi, gèng shì xiāngjū shēnghuó zhōng de yì zhǒng ēnhuì.

‘The occasional low-flying egrets in the sky at dusk are a blessing in rural life.’

In Example (5), the flying of egrets is highly valued as a blessing to human beings, and as an inscription of attitude, it is a clear indication of satisfaction and gratefulness. This example primarily showcases the naturalistic tendency of biophilia, which essentially denotes satisfaction derived from direct encounters and experiences with nature. These feelings may serve as a guide for students to develop a deeper appreciation for the physical environment and other organisms in their everyday lives, fostering a keen observation and a compassionate spirit in children, enabling them to discover the intrinsic beauty of nature and develop a genuine love for it.

Apart from physical environment and plants, animals are widely appreciated in the textbooks, manifesting aesthetic and humanistic tendencies of the biophilia as shown in Examples 6–8.

Example 6. 孩子们都觉得毛茸茸的小鸟很可爱。 (textbook 2b)

Háizimen dōu juéde máorōngrōng de xiǎoniǎo hěn kě'ài.

‘The kids thought the fluffy birds were very cute.’

Halliday and Matthiessen (2014: 213) propose that language serves three metafunctions, namely experiential metafunction (construing experiences of the world), interpersonal metafunction (enacting interpersonal relationships) and textual metafunction (constructing coherent texts). Grammatically, six process types are proposed within the experiential metafunction to represent the world, including material process, mental process, relational process, behavioural process, verbal process, and existential process, each with its own typical participants. In Example (6), the appreciation of animals is constructed as a mental process, where the Appraiser is the Senser in the process. “孩子们 (háizimen, ‘the kids’)” think that “小鸟们 (xiǎoniǎomen, ‘birds’)” are lovely. This Appreciation shows the affection of humans for the birds, a manifestation of the humanistic aspect of biophilia. In addition, Appreciation is also afforded in the epithet “毛茸茸的 (máorōngrōng de, ‘fluffy’)” which appears to be an objective description of the birds that are commonly perceived as “cute and lovely” in this context. This sentence conveys the message that small birds are endearing and delicate creatures that need human protection. It has the potential to cultivate and reinforce the humanistic element of biophilia in children’s minds.

Example 7. 只要有人稍微在树根上触动一下, 它们(松鼠)就从窝里跑出来, 躲在树枝底下, 或者逃到别的树上去。 (textbook 5a)

Zhǐyào yǒurén shāowēi zài shùgēn shang chùdòng yíxià, tāmen (sōngshǔ) jiù cóng wō lǐ pǎo chūlái, duǒ zài shùzhī dǐxia, huòzhě táo dào bié de shù shang qù.

‘As soon as someone touches the root of the tree, they (squirrels) run out of the nest, hide under the branches, or escape to another tree.’

In Example (7), a series of material processes depicts a situation in which squirrels smartly hide from potential threats. There is no evaluative lexis in the clauses, but a series of movements of the squirrels which jointly afford appreciation of squirrels. These material processes construct squirrels as alert, flexible and smart animals. This example highlights the ecologistic-scientific tendency in biophilia, as it provides insight into the habits and behaviours of squirrels in their natural environment, strengthening the understanding of species in nature.

As previously mentioned, negative Appreciation is relatively infrequent in our data. Therefore, instances where negative Appreciation emerges warrant particular scrutiny and attention. Within our data, negative Appreciation is used for specific species that have traditionally been deemed as detrimental to human lives or production.

Example 8. 棉花姑娘生病了, 叶子上有许多可恶的蚜虫。(textbook 1b)

Miánhuā gūniang shēngbìng le, yèzi shang yǒu xǔduō kěwù de yáchóng.

‘Cotton Girl is sick. There are many terrible aphids on the leaves.’

In Example (8), the adjective “可恶的 (kěwù de, ‘terrible)” constructs a negative Appreciation of aphids. The use of the word “许多 (xǔduō, ‘many’)” is used to emphasise the seriousness of the problem. As Hood and Martin (2007: 751) point out, numeratives which indicate inexact quantity could flag a degree of appreciation; the use of amount here serves as an intensification device. This example explicitly projects negative biophilic tendencies. It delivers a traditional but not ecologically beneficial attitude by infusing a human-centric mentality in children. The dislike or hatred of aphids is in the interest of humans. Classifying non-human animals with the criteria based on human interest could lead to the harm and even slaughter of certain kinds of non-human animals, such as aphids. Though aphids are harmful to cotton production, they have their roles in the ecosystem. The conventional approach to agriculture often perceives certain organisms as pests or menaces to crops, resulting in the use of pesticides and other noxious chemicals to control their populations. However, this approach fails to acknowledge the intricate relationships that exist within ecosystems and the potential harm that can be caused by disrupting these relationships. Present ecological ideas underscore the significance of comprehending and preserving the diversity of life on Earth, recognising that all organisms play a critical role in maintaining the health and equilibrium of ecosystems. As Gaston and Spicer (2004: 10–135) argue, humans have had a significant negative impact on biodiversity. The issue of species extinction is a pressing concern. It is important to note that while stories in PSCL textbooks are intended to teach students to protect and love nature in general, certain elements, such as the use of the term “害虫 (hài chóng, ‘harmful insects’)” and the hostile attitude towards certain species, may build a comparatively narrow understanding of the protection of the ecosystem. This highlights the need for careful consideration of language use in educational materials, particularly in the context of environmental education. Overall, the issue of biodiversity loss and species extinction is a critical concern that requires urgent attention. By promoting a deeper understanding and appreciation of the natural world, and by using language that reflects a positive and respectful attitude towards all living organisms, we can work towards a more sustainable and ecologically responsible future.

Upon analysing the inscribed and invoked Appreciations of the natural world in PSCL textbooks, it becomes evident that the realisations of Appreciations are highly adaptable in form. The utilisation of inscribed and invoked Appreciations offers primary school students a diverse range of perspectives to observe nature, thereby enhancing their observational and appreciative abilities. Moreover, the preponderance of positive Appreciations in the texts repeatedly strengthens the humanistic and aesthetic aspects of biophilia of students, encouraging students to explore the beauty of nature and establish a positive view of it.

In general, the world depicted in PSCL textbooks portrays a realm of remarkable beauty and harmony, around the motif “We live in a wonderful world”, wherein the natural environment remains pristine, flourishing with thriving plants and endearing non-human animals. However, the rare occurrence of negative Appreciation, to some extent, represents insufficient representation of the less optimistic aspects of the natural world, characterised by polluted air and water, the plight of endangered species, and the depletion of natural resources due to human activities, etc. The inadequate representation of these negative sides might engender a surreal realm for students, potentially impeding the development of a comprehensive and pragmatic comprehension of the interconnectedness between humanity and the natural world, as well as an insufficient awareness of pressing environmental challenges. Furthermore, certain biophilic aspects, such as moralistic, utilitarian, and ecological-scientific, are insufficiently represented in the PSCL textbooks, either. It is crucial to exercise prudent deliberation when contemplating how to strike a careful balance between the positive and negative representations of nature in the forthcoming revisions of the PSCL textbooks.

Affects towards nature: we all have feelings (we are equal)

Affect refers to feelings or emotions towards people or nature. The conscious participant experiencing the emotion is called an Emoter, and the phenomenon responsible for that emotion is called a Trigger (Martin and White 2005: 46). The analysis of Affect can be approached from several dimensions, and one of these dimensions is positive or negative valence. In our data, positive emotions such as happiness, satisfaction, and interest, among others, are found to be significantly more prevalent than negative emotions such as sadness, dissatisfaction, and indifference. Given that the textbooks are tailored for primary school students, the use of difficult or infrequent Chinese characters is limited. The following table provides a rough list of vocabulary items denoting positive and negative Affects in the textbooks.

While Table 3 may not encompass all words that denote common emotions, the significant discrepancy between the frequencies of positive and negative emotion words highlights the textbooks’ emphasis on promoting positive attitudes. Similar to the representation of Appreciation, inscribed Affect (70%) outnumbers invoked Affect (30%) in our data, as shown in Figs. 5 and 6.

Table 3 A comparison of vocabulary signifying emotion.
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Fig. 5
Fig. 5The alternative text for this image may have been generated using AI.
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The proportion of inscribed affect and invoked affect.

Fig. 6
Fig. 6The alternative text for this image may have been generated using AI.
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The proportion of inscribed judgement and invoked judgement.

In the PSCL textbooks, the environment, beautiful plants, and adorable non-human animals are frequently identified as Triggers of emotions, while human beings and personalised plants or non-human animals typically serve as Emoters. The realisation of Affects is more often explicit than implicit. Animals and plants in our data are frequently endowed with personalities, enabling them to communicate their emotions and preferences for a positive environment that is free from disturbances. This anthropomorphic portrayal contributes to bridging the divide between humans and other inhabitants of the world, fostering an understanding that the planet is a shared space where all beings are equal. For example,

Example 9. 树很孤单, 喜鹊也很孤单…树很快乐, 喜鹊也很快乐。 (textbook 1b)

Shù hěn gūdān, xǐque yě hěn gūdān… Shù hěn kuàilè, xǐque yě hěn kuàilè.

‘The tree felt lonely and so did the magpie…The tree felt happy and so did the magpie.’

In Example (9), the tree and the magpie are personified with human emotions. For Affect, a useful distinguishing frame is a relational attributive process with a conscious participant involving the verb feel (Martin and White 2005: 58), such as the verb “感觉/觉得 (gǎnjué/ juéde, ‘feel’)” in Chinese. And in many cases, the frame is “a conscious participant + adjective” in Chinese, which, in nature, is a relational attributive process. A relational process mainly serves to characterise and identify (Halliday and Matthiessen 2014: 259). The story’s plot in Example (9) revolves around the tree and the magpie feeling lonely when they were the only ones in their habitats. However, as more trees were planted and more magpies settled in the area, both the tree and the magpie felt happy due to the company of their peers. The plot is straightforward, and it is easy for first-graders to comprehend the close relationship between plants, the environment, and animals. The takeaway from the text is the idea that tree planting and protection a beneficial activities for the environment and animals. Compared to evaluating an activity as constructive or destructive, the emotions of happiness or loneliness are more straightforward, making them easier for children to grasp. Additionally, the use of personification adds interest to the story and bridges the gap between human beings and other elements in nature.

In certain instances, Affects are not explicitly articulated, but rather implied through the various movements of animals, enriching students’ scientific understanding of nature by showcasing the behaviours of specific species. The ecologistic-scientific tendency can be further enhanced by engaging with such content, as exemplified in Example (10).

Example 10. 小松鼠每天都到地里去, 看看结花生了没有。他等啊, 等啊, 等到花都落光了, 也没看见一个花生。 (textbook 1a)

Xiǎo sōngshǔ měitiān dōu dào dì li qù, kànkan jiē huāshēng le méiyǒu. Tā děng a, děng a, děng dào huā dōu luòguāng le, yě méi kànjian yí ge huāshēng.

‘The little squirrel went to the field every day to see if there were any peanuts. He waited and waited until the flowers fell down, but didn’t see a single peanut.’

The squirrel in this instance is eager to harvest peanuts, but its pursuit is fruitless. The emotions of eagerness and anxiety are initially expressed by the adverbial phrase “每天 (měitiān, ‘every day’)”, which implies that the subject is tormented with anticipation. The repetition of the verb “等 (děng, ‘wait’)” additionally marks the squirrel’s anxiety. Such affective resonance also emerges in the use of “都 (dōu, ‘all’)”, which conveys the extent to which the squirrel persists in its failed venture until the last day when “all” the leaves have fallen. As noted previously, attributing human emotions to animals can convey a clear message of equality, thus facilitating the cultivation of a harmonious relationship between humans and animals. In addition, through this story, students can gain insights into the lifestyle of squirrels and, more broadly, comprehend nature’s intricate workings. Through the provision of appropriate guidance and instruction, students can better understand squirrels, thereby establishing the groundwork for their advocacy and safeguarding of these magnificent creatures. By immersing themselves in plenty of captivating narratives featuring a diverse array of animals, students not only cultivate a holistic understanding of the natural world but also foster a deep reverence for our environment. Thus, the objective of environmental education is achieved by inculcating the fundamental cognition of the subject of protection: the natural environment, non-human animals, and so on.

In addition to the portrayal of personified plants and animals, it is noteworthy that humans featured in PSCL textbooks assume a significant role as Emoters, exerting the potential to impact the emotional state of readers in relation to nature. Various emotions of humans towards nature are constructed. For example,

Example 11. 过不多久, 忽然有一个更小的脑袋从叶间探出来, 哟, 雏儿! 正是这个小家伙! (textbook 5a)

Guò bu duō jiǔ, hūrán yǒu yí ge gèng xiǎo de nǎodai cóng yè jiān tàn chūlai, yō, chúr! Zhèng shì zhège xiǎo jiāhuo!

‘Not long after, a smaller head suddenly popped out from the leaves. Oh, chick! Exactly this little guy!’

In Example (11), Affect is invoked through the use of the exclamative “呦 (yō, ‘oh’)”, which in Chinese is commonly employed to convey emotions such as excitement, surprise, gratification, and so on. To further elicit affective responses from the audience, the Chinese character “儿 (er)” as a suffix of endearment is introduced in the word “雏儿 (chúr, ‘chick’)”. In the Chinese language, this particular character is frequently appended to a noun to confer upon it a semblance of endearment or charm, bestowing an affectionate quality to the word being modified. For example, the use of “花儿 (huār, ‘flower’)” instead of the more plain, straightforward “花 (huā, ‘flower’)” can contribute to conveying the speaker’s appreciation or fondness for the object, thus eliciting similar emotions in the listener. Besides, the exclamation mark is applied to underscore the speaker’s strong emotional response. A further instance of Affect is invoked through the use of the phrase “小家伙 (xiǎo jiāhuo, ‘the little guy’)” which refers to lovely and charming beings, such as cute animals and children. Such use of language allows the text writer to convey the fondness for the animal and emphasises its adorability, thus further appealing to the readers’ emotions. The combined use of these linguistic elements enables the text producer to convey their affectionate regard for the animal in question. This example captures a manifestation of the humanistic aspect of biophilia, as reflected in the speaker’s use of language to express their love of animals. Texts like this serve as a potential teaching tool for educators seeking to inspire students’ love for nature, highlighting the power of language to reveal our emotional connections to the natural world. As such, it embodies an educational approach that nurtures both environmental awareness and a love of animals, helping to cultivate a more ecologically conscious and compassionate society.

As shown in the examples, affective responses are not exclusive to humans, and the representation of Affects in personified animals and plants indicates the possibility that they have emotions similar to humans. This offers opportunities to instil in children the idea that plants and animals are just like us: We all have feelings (We are equal). The analysis highlights the importance of integrating affective language into educational curricula and practices, as it may have a profound and lasting impact on young readers.

Judgements of human and personified figures: we should protect nature

Martin and White (2005: 52) define Judgement as attitudes toward behaviours and personalities in general and classify it into social esteem (judgement of the normality, capacity and tenacity) and social sanction (judgement of the veracity and propriety). In our data, Judgements account for the smallest portion as compared to Appreciations and Affects. Most of the Judgements are not of a serious nature and mainly pertain to social esteem. This implies a concentration on assessing conduct based on its adherence to social norms, rather than its moral or ethical implications.

In our data, Judgements—both invoked and inscribed—are frequently utilised in tandem to mould attitudes towards particular behaviours or personalities. Notably, Judgements are seldom passed on grave matters and behaviours with potentially severe repercussions, such as breaches of the law. The example that follows constitutes the sole instance within our data where destructive human conduct, specifically related to environmental protection, is criticised in a harsh and uncompromising tone.

Example 12. 因为人类随意毁坏自然资源, 不顾后果地滥用化学品, 不但使它们 (资源) 不能再生, 还造成了一系列生态灾难, 给人类生存带来了严重的威胁…我们要精心地保护地球, 保护地球的生态环境。

Yīnwèi rénlèi suíyì huǐhuài zìrán zīyuán, búgù hòuguǒ de lànyòng huàxuépǐn, búdàn shǐ tāmen (zīyuán) bù néng zàishēng, hái zàochéngle yí xìliè shēngtài zāinàn, gěi rénlèi shēngcún dàilái le yánzhòng de wēixié… Wǒmen yào jīngxīn de bǎohù dìqiú, bǎohù dìqiú de shēngtài huánjìng.

‘The destruction of natural resources at the will of human beings and their abuse of chemicals regardless of the consequences lead to the failure of natural resource regeneration, a series of ecological disasters and serious threats to human survival… We should carefully protect the earth and protect the ecological environment of the earth.’

In Example (13), the human tendency to exploit natural resources excessively is negatively judged. Such behaviours include “destroying natural resources at will”, “abusing chemicals regardless of the consequences”, “causing a series of ecological disasters” and “bringing serious threats”, which are generally inscriptions of Judgements to behaviours of human beings. In the final imperative clause, the Chinese character “要 (yào, ‘should’)” expresses a modulation of obligation which indicates that the behaviour of “protecting the Earth” is an action we should take. This is also an invocation of Judgement. In this example, the Judgements outline a very disappointing relationship between the Earth and human beings. Human beings have long abused the kindness of the earth, showing the negative side of our utilitarian tendency in biophilia. Humans may feel connected to nature due to its practical value, and such a connection often leads to environmental destruction as we exploit natural resources without regard for their long-term sustainability. Unfortunately, the desire for short-term gains and profit often outweighs a sense of responsibility for the long-term health of our planet. Greed and consumerism have driven humans to engage in activities that exhaust nature.

In our data, Judgements concerning behaviours that may impact nature are frequently expressed explicitly. Rather than implicitly passing judgement on certain environment-related behaviours, attitudes are often conveyed through setting positive examples or by making earnest pleas.

Example 13. (小青蛙) 保护禾苗吃害虫, 做了不少好事情。请你爱护小青蛙。(textbook 1a)

(Xiǎo qīngwā) bǎohù hémiáo chī hàichóng, zuò le bù shǎo hǎo shìqing. Qǐng nǐ àihù xiǎo qīngwā.

‘The Little Frog protects seedlings by eating pests. It has done a lot of good things. Please take care of the little frog.’

In the given scenario, protecting seedlings and eliminating pests are actions that are perceived as favourable and justifiable by most humans. Despite the debate on whether consuming pests is ecologically-friendly behaviour, the frog’s actions are appraised positively, albeit from a human-centred viewpoint. “做了不少好事情 (zuò le bù shǎo hǎo shìqing, ‘doing a lot of good things’)” is an inscribed Judgement of propriety for the frog since “好 (hǎo, ‘good’)” is an attitudinal word used to positively evaluate the propriety of behaviour. The imperative clause “请你爱护小青蛙 (Qǐng nǐ àihù xiǎo qīngwā, ‘Please protect the little frog’)” is an invoked Judgement of the behaviour “protecting frogs” of human beings, for the behaviour “protecting frogs” is encouraged as good or moral behaviour. Similar to the representations of social esteem, social sanction shows a pattern of comprehensive application of inscribed and invoked methods. The inscribed Judgements are clear in meaning but tend to be abstract, and the invoked Judgements complement the inscribed Judgements with concrete descriptions and details. The example demonstrates a utilitarian tendency present in biophilia, whereby frogs are valued and praised due to their ability to protect economic crops. This traditional perspective classifies non-human animals according to their usefulness and value to human beings. However, such tendencies can result in the protection of certain non-human animals while others are disregarded or even harmed. When educating young children, it is important to avoid overemphasising utilitarian tendencies and instead encourage a more holistic approach to nature and non-human animals that emphasises respect, empathy, and protection for their own sake. It is important to recognise the limitations of utilitarian approaches to environmental protection and strive towards a more inclusive and comprehensive perspective that takes into account the intrinsic value of all non-human animals and their right to exist and thrive in their natural habitats.

Research findings

To summarise, this study has analysed how evaluative language in Chinese primary textbooks may foster environmental awareness. Application of the Appraisal framework (Martin and White 2005) to the analysis of the textual data yields the following major findings:

First, Appreciation constitutes the dominant attitudinal resource, overwhelmingly portraying nature’s aesthetic qualities in a positive light. This aesthetic emphasis aligns with place-based education principles (Sobel 2004), positing that emotional and sensory connections to local environments underpin ecological stewardship.

Second, analysis of Affect reveals frequent attribution of human-like emotions to non-human animals. Such anthropomorphism leverages children’s innate empathy, reinforcing narratives of interspecies kinship central to biophilic ideologies (Kellert and Wilson 1993).

Third, although less frequent, instances of Judgement offer perspectives on human–environment interactions, often framing ecological responsibility through moral binaries, generally promoting environmental protection.

Regarding linguistic realisations, the majority of attitudinal meanings are explicitly inscribed, facilitating direct comprehension. This explicitness strategically addresses primary students’ cognitive preference for concrete information, ensuring efficient transmission of ecological values with minimal abstraction. Furthermore, the analysis identifies a complementary interplay between inscribed and invoked attitudes. Vivid descriptions of natural entities (e.g., forests; inscribed Appreciation) frequently serve to implicitly invoke associated ethical obligations (e.g., preservation). This hybrid realisation strategy strengthens persuasive discourse, consistent with the Appraisal framework’s account of attitude (Martin and White 2005), and aligns effectively with the developmental stage of the target learners.

Collectively, these findings substantiate the biophilia hypothesis, highlighting a pronounced manifestation of its humanistic, naturalistic, and aesthetic dimensions within the textbooks. This reflects a deliberate pedagogical focus on cultivating reverence for nature’s beauty and vitality. However, the analysis also reveals a significant representational gap: dimensions reflecting adverse human-nature relationships—such as ecological degradation or climate anxiety—are conspicuously absent.

Discussion

This current study reveals a significant density of attitudinal resources within primary school Chinese language (PSCL) textbooks. As Halliday (1985; 2003: 171–172; 2004, 2007, 2016; Halliday et al. 1964) consistently argues, language is not merely a passive reflector of reality but an active agent in its construction, particularly within educational contexts. Our analysis argues that these attitudinal resources might function as powerful, often implicit, shapers of students’ affective orientations towards the natural world.

As we mentioned in the previous section, while the findings affirm the potential of language education as a vehicle for fostering biophilic values, they also expose critical representational gaps within the current textbooks that may limit the development of holistic ecological literacy. First, the overwhelming emphasis on positive Appreciation and Affect aligns with the aesthetic and humanistic dimensions of biophilia, effectively nurturing children’s emotional affinity with nature. However, this optimistic portrayal risks constructing a utopian ecological narrative. By omitting representations of pollution, biodiversity loss, or climate impacts, PSCL textbooks fail to adequately acknowledge the urgency of environmental crises. This imbalance may foster eco-complacency – a disconnect between idealised nature and real-world challenges.

Secondly, the attribution of human emotions to non-human entities effectively harnesses children’s empathy, promoting kinship with nature. Yet, this strategy sometimes prioritises charismatic species (e.g., squirrels, birds) while marginalising ecologically critical but less “adorable” organisms (e.g., insects, fungi). It may even reinforce human exceptionalism – the notion that nature’s value derives from its utility or emotional resonance for humans, reducing biodiversity to instrumental worth, neglecting intrinsic value. Such framing may contradict deep ecology principles, which advocate for biocentric equality.

Thirdly, the scarcity of Judgement resources – particularly those addressing ecological responsibility (social sanction) – reflects a missed opportunity to cultivate critical agency. It can be seen that PSCL textbooks avoid exploring complex dilemmas and conflicts, which mirrors Huang’s (2020) observation that Chinese educational materials prioritise “beneficial discourse”, potentially stifling critical ecoliteracy. Without grappling with these tensions, students may struggle to navigate real-world sustainability challenges.

To effectively transform biophilic sentiments into ecological citizenship, future materials should integrate portrayals encompassing both harmony and conflict to foster critical ecoliteracy (Bennett 2011; Goleman et al. 2012). Addressing this representational gap would better equip students to navigate the complex ethical and practical challenges inherent in ecological interdependence, thereby advancing the objectives of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) (UNESCO 2020).

Beyond textbook development, educators play a vital role in leveraging these findings. Teachers must actively recognise and utilise the attitudinal dimension of texts during instruction. By scaffolding students’ ability to decode attitudinal resources within texts and articulate nuanced ecological sensibilities, teachers can transform language classrooms into incubators of critical environmental consciousness. Pedagogical practice should focus explicitly, from the foundation of language teaching, on helping students identify attitudinal markers and comprehend how affect is linguistically constructed. When students internalise the lexico-grammatical patterns encoding reverence for biodiversity, they effectively rehearse the discursive practices essential for sustainable societies. Graduates of such an educational paradigm will not only comprehend ecological interdependence intellectually but also embody ecocentric values, translating biophilic principles into concrete initiatives and innovations.

This research has adopted a primarily linguistic perspective to investigate the discursive construction of environmental values through textual analysis of selected PSCL textbooks, and its scope necessitates acknowledging limitations and avenues for further investigation. The substantial presence of visual elements within the textbooks – ranging from idyllic landscapes to anthropomorphised animal illustrations – conveys profound ecological meanings through symbolic representation. Though beyond the methodological purview of this textual analysis, these multimodal resources demonstrably synergise with linguistic content to reinforce environmental ideologies. This critical dimension warrants systematic exploration through frameworks such as Multimodal Discourse Analysis (Kress and van Leeuwen, 2006), demonstrated as effective in textbook research (Chen 2010; Chen and Huang 2009; Chen and Wang 2008). Future research should investigate how visual-verbal complementarity enhances or complicates ecological messaging, proposing evidence-based strategies for optimising multimodal textbook design in environmental education.

In addition, while the Appraisal framework has proved highly effective in detecting broad attitudinal patterns across texts, our analysis has also revealed its limitations as a tool for capturing the nuanced ecological worldviews inherent in biophilic discourse. Specifically, the framework’s generalised attitude categorisations may not be adequate enough to encapsulate the intricate spectrum of human affinity for nature. Subsequent research should aim to extend the Appraisal framework by integrating dimensions from the biophilia hypothesis (Kellert and Wilson 1993), particularly its emphasis on humanity’s evolved psychological affiliation with nature. Bridging linguistic appraisal mechanisms with biophilic theory could yield a more ecologically attuned analytical paradigm.

Future research may also track the longitudinal impact of textbooks, i.e. measuring how textbook attitudes correlate with students’ pro-environmental behaviours. In addition, cross-cultural comparison may also prove valuable, for example, contrasting Chinese textbooks with those from nations prioritising critical ecology (e.g., Finland’s climate education).