Table 1 Chemically programmable coacervate protocells: local reactivity control, written states and external readouts

Local reactivity control

Small-molecule reactions

Condition-dependent rate: crowding³³; pH³⁴; salt³⁵

Droplet-boundary catalysis³⁶

Photocatalysis^37,38; photoswitch⁴⁰

Compartmentalization^39,46

Enzymatic reactions

Localization: co-partitioning⁴⁷; segregation⁴⁸

Local conditions: pH buffering⁴⁹

Spatially organized cascades^{50,54,55,56,57,58}

Switching controls: shells⁵¹; light⁵²; pH⁵³

Nucleic-acid catalysis

Composition effects: polymer⁶⁰; peptides⁶¹;

polyanions⁶²; charge density⁶³

Multiphase droplets change RNA pairing⁶⁴

Transcription & translation

Crowding-dependent expression⁶⁵

Composition effects: polycation (PLL)⁶⁶

Template-addressable transcription⁶⁷

State writing

Scaffold writing

Photopolymerization⁶⁸;

Filament scaffolds (actin) ⁶⁹;

Gelation^70,71

Layout writing

Shell/membrane^72,73;

Vacuolation⁷⁴;

Nucleus-like body⁷⁵

Timeline writing

Fuel-pulse lifetime control^22,23;

Transient coacervation^76,77,78;

Oscillations^79,80,81

External readouts

Synthetic systems

Shell/membrane-gated communication^82,83

Community behaviors: predation⁸⁴; retaliation⁸⁵

Protocell networks: spatial fluorescence fields^86,87,88

Living systems

Mammalian cells: ROS readout⁸⁹

Tissue: diabetic wound⁹⁰; vessels⁹²; platelets⁹³

Bacteria: antibacterial readout⁹¹

Surrounding medium

In situ gelation/immobilization^16,94;

pH readouts⁸⁵; optical readouts⁸⁶