Abstract
A significant gap persists between planning and implementing adaptation actions in European cities. This study investigates the social, institutional and economic factors influencing the implementation of 19,954 adaptation actions reported by 1596 signatories in 32 European countries within the Global Covenant of Mayors. Using statistical and machine learning methods, the research examines how contextual factors (such as social inequity or educational levels, among others) and stakeholder interactions relate to the implementation status of the actions, e.g., whether their implementation has started or is completed, and with how much delay the process started. The analysis reveals key insights into how those factors can shape adaptation implementation in different settlement types. This work contributes to closing the planning-implementation gap by identifying patterns among the factors and providing evidence-based guidance for policymakers and practitioners to enhance the implementation of climate adaptation strategies across European cities.
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Data availability
Sequence data supporting this study’s findings are or will be openly available. The primary datasets used to conduct the research can be found at https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-024-03613-5 and in the data sources of refs. 57,58,59,60. Generated data is accessible under request and has been deposited in Zenodo: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15593459.
Code availability
The code used in this research is accessible under request and can be found in the Zenodo repository: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15593459.
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Acknowledgements
This research benefited from inputs from several researchers. We would like to thank Giulia Melica and Valentina Palermo for their input on the data and Camilo Franco for his input on statistical methods. This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 101036458.
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Conceptualisation of the research conducted by G.M.G, D.R., and J.F.; Methodology designed by G.M.G, D.R., and J.F.; Software, coding, and data curation by G.M.G.; Data collection by G.M.G. and A.T.; Validation of the data by G.M.G, A.T., D.R., J.F., and R.S.; Writing of the original draft by G.M.G.; Writing, reviewing and editing by D.R., G.M.G, J.F., A.T., and R.S.; Visualisations created by G.M.G. and reviewed by D.R., J.F., A.T., and R.S.; Conceptual and theoretical contributions by G.M.G, D.R., J.F., A.T., and R.S.; Supervision by D.R., J.F., and R.S.
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Martínez Görbig, G., Flacke, J., Treville, A. et al. Empirical insights on the adaptation planning-implementation gap from the Global Covenant of Mayors European signatories. npj Urban Sustain (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s42949-026-00365-6
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s42949-026-00365-6
