Table 2 Association of sociodemographic and health-related factors with depressive symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic (weighted GEE models) (n = 37,111)a

From: A longitudinal analysis of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health of middle-aged and older adults from the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging

Factor

Main effects

Annual household income by period interaction

Social participation by period interaction

Chronic conditions by period interaction

Loneliness by period interaction

Period

 COVID-19 baseline versus pre-COVID-19

1.84 (1.77, 1.91)

3.03 (2.74, 3.35)

2.00 (1.91, 2.09)

2.18 (2.00, 2.39)

2.31 (2.18, 2.45)

 COVID-19 exit versus pre-COVID-19

1.99 (1.91, 2.07)

3.17 (2.85, 3.52)

2.15 (2.05, 2.25)

2.36 (2.15, 2.59)

2.57 (2.42, 2.73)

Age groupb

 <55 years versus ≥75 years

1.79 (1.65, 1.94)

1.86 (1.71, 2.02)

1.79 (1.65, 1.94)

1.83 (1.69, 1.99)

1.79 (1.65, 1.95)

 55–64 years versus ≥75 years

1.55 (1.45, 1.65)

1.50 (1.41, 1.60)

1.55 (1.45, 1.66)

1.52 (1.43, 1.63)

1.55 (1.45, 1.65)

 65–74 years versus ≥75 years

1.19 (1.12, 1.26)

1.15 (1.08, 1.22)

1.19 (1.12, 1.26)

1.17 (1.10, 1.24)

1.19 (1.12, 1.26)

Sex

 Female versus male

1.49 (1.42, 1.56)

1.49 (1.42, 1.57)

1.49 (1.42, 1.57)

1.49 (1.42, 1.57)

1.49 (1.42, 1.56)

Ethnicity

 Nonwhite versus white

1.05 (0.96, 1.15)

1.05 (0.96, 1.15)

1.05 (0.96, 1.15)

1.05 (0.96, 1.15)

1.05 (0.96, 1.15)

Annual household income

 <$20,000 versus ≥$150,000

1.56 (1.38, 1.76)

2.97 (2.62, 3.37)

1.56 (1.38, 1.76)

1.56 (1.38, 1.76)

1.55 (1.37, 1.75)

 ≥$20,000 to <$50,000 versus ≥$150,000

1.25 (1.15, 1.36)

1.95 (1.77, 2.14)

1.25 (1.15, 1.36)

1.25 (1.15, 1.36)

1.25 (1.14, 1.36)

 ≥$50,000 to <$100,000 versus ≥$150,000

1.08 (1.01, 1.17)

1.46 (1.34, 1.60)

1.08 (1.01, 1.17)

1.08 (1.01, 1.17)

1.08 (1.10, 1.16)

 ≥$100,000 to <$150,000 versus ≥$150,000

1.02 (0.94, 1.10)

1.27 (1.16, 1.40)

1.02 (0.94, 1.10)

1.02 (0.94, 1.10)

1.01 (0.94, 1.10)

Social participation

 Low versus high social participation

1.36 (1.29, 1.44)

1.36 (1.28, 1.44)

1.63 (1.55 1.73)

1.36 (1.28, 1.44)

1.35 (1.28, 1.43)

Number of people living in the same household

     

 Living alone versus not living alone

0.94 (0.89, 1.01)

0.94 (0.89, 1.01)

0.94 (0.89, 1.01)

0.94 (0.89, 1.00)

0.94 (0.89, 1.01)

Dwelling type

 Apartment or condominium versus house

1.16 (1.09, 1.24)

1.16 (1.08, 1.23)

1.16 (1.09, 1.24)

1.16 (1.09, 1.24)

1.17 (1.09, 1.24)

 Other versus house

1.34 (1.07, 1.67)

1.34 (1.08, 1.66)

1.34 (1.08, 1.67)

1.34 (1.07, 1.66)

1.34 (1.07, 1.67)

Living area

 Urban versus rural

1.07 (1.01, 1.14)

1.07 (1.01, 1.14)

1.07 (1.01, 1.14)

1.07 (1.01, 1.14)

1.07 (1.01, 1.14)

Number of chronic conditions

 One versus none

1.22 (1.14, 1.31)

1.23 (1.14, 1.31)

1.22 (1.14, 1.31)

1.29 (1.19, 1.39)

1.22 (1.14, 1.31)

 Two versus none

1.50 (1.40, 1.62)

1.51 (1.41, 1.63)

1.50 (1.40, 1.62)

1.72 (1.59, 1.86)

1.50 (1.39, 1.61)

 Three or more versus none

2.01 (1.88, 2.16)

2.02 (1.88, 2.17)

2.01 (1.87, 2.16)

2.42 (2.23, 2.61)

2.01 (1.87, 2.16)

Alcohol consumption

 Binge drinker versus nondrinker

1.06 (0.94, 1.19)

1.06 (0.94, 1.19)_

1.06 (0.95, 1.20)

1.06 (0.94, 1.19)

1.07 (0.95, 1.20)

 Regular drinker versus nondrinker

0.85 (0.79, 0.91)

0.85 (0.79, 0.91)

0.85 (0.79, 0.91)

0.85 (0.79, 0.91)

0.85 (0.80, 0.91)

 Occasional drinker versus nondrinker

0.86 (0.79, 0.93)

0.86 (0.79, 0.94)

0.86 (0.79, 0.93)

0.86 (0.79, 0.93)

0.86 (0.79, 0.94)

Smoking status

 Current smoker versus never smoker

1.47 (1.35, 1.61)

1.47 (1.35, 1.61)

1.47 (1.35, 1.60)

1.47 (1.35, 1.61)

1.47 (1.35, 1.60)

 Former smoker versus never smoker

1.14 (1.09, 1.21)

1.15 (1.09, 1.21)

1.14 (1.09, 1.21)

1.15 (1.09, 1.21)

1.14 (1.09, 1.21)

Physical activity

 Low activity versus adequate activity

1.15 (1.09, 1.21)

1.15 (1.09, 1.21)

1.15 (1.09, 1.21)

1.15 (1.09, 1.21)

1.15 (1.09, 1.21)

Loneliness

 Yes versus no

3.25 (3.10, 3.41)

3.25 (3.10, 3.41)

3.25 (3.10, 3.40)

3.24 (3.10, 3.40)

4.21 (3.99, 4.43)

Annual household income × period (period reference = pre-COVID-19/annual household income reference = ≥$150,000)

 <$20,000 versus ≥$150,000 at COVID-19 baseline versus pre-COVID-19

 

3.35 (2.81, 3.99)

   

 ≥$20,000 to <$50,000 versus ≥$150,000 at COVID-19 baseline versus pre-COVID-19

 

3.03 (2.71, 3.38)

   

 ≥$50,000 to <$100,000 versus ≥$150,000 at COVID-19 baseline versus pre-COVID-19

 

2.74 (2.49, 3.02)

   

 ≥$100,000 to <$150,000 versus ≥$150,000 at COVID-19 baseline versus pre-COVID-19

 

2.72 (2.44, 3.03)

   

 <$20,000 versus ≥$150,000 at COVID-19 exit versus pre-COVID-19

 

3.08 (2.56, 3.72)

   

 ≥$20,000 to <$50,000 versus ≥$150,000 at COVID-19 exit versus pre-COVID-19

 

3.16 (2.82, 3.54)

   

 ≥$50,000 to <$100,000 versus ≥$150,000 at COVID-19 exit versus pre-COVID-19

 

3.14 (2.85, 3.47)

   

 ≥$100,000 to <$150,000 versus ≥$150,000 at COVID-19 exit versus pre-COVID-19

 

3.01 (2.69, 3.37)

   

Social participation × period (period reference = pre-COVID-19/social participation reference = high social participation)

 Low social participation versus high social participation at COVID-19 baseline versus pre-COVID-19

  

2.36 (2.18, 2.56)

  

 Low social participation versus high social participation at COVID-19 exit versus pre-COVID-19

  

2.59 (2.38, 2.82)

  

Number of chronic conditions × period (period reference = pre-COVID-19/number of chronic conditions reference = 0)

 1 versus 0 at COVID-19 baseline versus pre-COVID-19

   

2.56 (2.34, 2.81)

 

 2 versus 0 at COVID-19 baseline versus pre-COVID-19

   

3.18 (2.89, 3.51)

 

 3+ versus 0 at COVID-19 baseline versus pre-COVID-19

   

3.92 (3.58, 4.30)

 

 1 versus 0 at COVID-19 exit versus pre-COVID-19

   

2.85 (2.59, 3.14)

 

 2 versus 0 at COVID-19 exit versus pre-COVID-19

   

3.21 (2.90, 3.55)

 

 3+ versus 0 at COVID-19 exit versus pre-COVID-19

   

4.35 (3.95, 4.78)

 

Loneliness × period (period reference = pre-COVID-19/loneliness reference = not feeling lonely)

 Feeling lonely versus not feeling lonely at COVID-19 baseline versus pre-COVID-19

    

6.75 (6.34, 7.18)

 Feeling lonely versus not feeling lonely at COVID-19 exit versus pre-COVID-19

    

7.11 (6.66, 7.59)

  1. aWe performed WGEE modeling on 39,604 participants, which includes individuals with a monotonic pattern of missing data for the depressive symptom variable.
  2. bAge group is included as a time-varying variable; loneliness data are from the CLSA first follow-up and all other covariates are from the CLSA baseline data.
  3. Data are shown as OR (95% CI).
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