Fig. 1: Complex interrelations between subgroups in ~ 600 participant population cohort.

a Our participant sample consists of 370 participants with the diagnosis with PD diagnosis and 233 participants without PD diagnosis (inner circular bar plot). Among these, 94 non-PD participants and 77 PD patients carry LRRK2 pathogenic variants indicated by the black edge (middle circular bar plot). Finally, the outer circular bar plot depicts the ratio of asyn SAA positive (red) and asyn SAA negative (blue) participants in each subgroup. b PD patients carrying LRRK2 pathogenic variants represent the oldest subgroup. Raincloud plots display the age of each participant in one of the four subgroups. c Proportion of females among subgroups. Non-manifesting carriers with LRRK2 pathogenic variants display the highest proportion of females. The red dotted line marks an equal ratio of male and female participants. d Different disease duration in PD patients. Disease duration is plotted for PD patients separated by the presence of LRRK2 pathogenic variant. The diversity in key demographic metrics poses a challenge to comparing PD and control subgroups. Abbreviations: HC healthy controls, NMC non-manifesting carrier, PD Parkinson’s disease, sPD sporadic PD.