Table 3 Cognitive test scores in American Indians age 70–95 in the Strong Heart Study/cerebrovascular disease and its consequences in American Indians (CDCAI) sub-cohort Visit 2 (2017–2019), over tertile-defined categories of high, middle, and low cognitive reserve at CDCAI Visit 1 (2010–2013)

From: Cognitive reserve is associated with education, social determinants, and cognitive outcomes among older American Indians in the Strong Heart Study

 

WAIS-Brain

COWA-WMH

CVLT-Hipp

One-way ANOVA F-statistica

P value

One-way ANOVA F-statistica

P value

Oneway ANOVA F-statistica

P value

3MSE (Visit 2)

17.06

<0.0001b

36.06

<0.0001b

21.05

<0.0001b

WAIS (Visit 2)

90.13

-

139.65

<0.0001 b

7.60

0.0006

COWA (Visit 2)

13.45

<0.0001b

27.80

-

4.86

0.0082

CVLT long free (Visit 2)

1.71

0.1831

4.01

0.0189

34.68

-

MoCA (Visit 2)

18.05

<0.0001b

33.96

<0.0001b

19.07

<0.0001

Animal naming (Visit 2)

7.07

0.0010

12.42

<0.0001

3.56

0.0295

Vegetable naming (Visit 2)

8.11

0.0004

12.10

<0.0001

14.98

<0.0001

Craft immediate recall (Visit 2)

11.70

<0.0001

14.01

<0.0001

3.73

0.0250

Craft delayed recall (Visit 2)

9.13

<0.0001

10.29

<0.0001

5.89

0.0030

Benson figure copy (Visit 2)

2.72

0.0670b

5.26

0.0056

3.46

0.0326b

Benson figure recall (Visit 2)

1.08

0.3414

3.26

0.0394

15.75

<0.0001

Number span forward (Visit 2)

5.51

0.0044

12.05

<0.0001

0.05

0.9518

Number span backward (Visit 2)

15.17

<0.0001

26.19

<0.0001b

3.18

0.0428

Trails A seconds (Visit 2)

17.21

<0.0001b

28.85

<0.0001b

3.30

0.0382b

Trails B seconds (Visit 2)

4.75

0.0092

5.17

0.0061b

0.04

0.9602b

MINT (Visit 2)

21.42

<0.0001b

23.55

<0.0001b

5.79

0.0034b

  1. aNumbers included in the analysis: WAIS-Brain both Visit 1 and Visit 2 n = 298, COWA-WMH both Visit 1 and Visit 2 n = 298. Degrees of freedom between groups: 2, within groups: 378. CVLT-Hipp both Visit 1 and Visit 2 n = 289. P value from one-way ANOVA of differences in means (F-test) in continuous values of plasma biomarkers, by tertile of cognitive reserve metric.
  2. bAssumption not met of (null) Bartlett P value for (chi2) test of equality of variances.
  3. Cognitive reserve metrics defined as residuals of observed-over-expected performance in cognitive test score, regressed over brain image feature standardized to intracranial volume and adjusted for age and sex. Assumption not met of null Bartlett P value for (chi2) test of equality of variances. Additional adjustments for follow-up time or with standardization of test scores over time elapsed provided similar results. Composite cognitive test performance, defined as an average of Z-scored tests by visit, also provided similar patterns of association. Terms defined: Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale Digit Symbol Coding Test (WAIS DSST) over brain volume as percent intracranial volume (WAIS-Brain), (middle) residuals of Controlled Oral Word Association f/a/s test (COWA) over white matter hypointensities volume (MRI T1 sequence) as percent intracranial volume (COWA-WMH), and (bottom) residuals of California Verbal Learning Test version II short form long delay free recall test (CVLT LF) over hippocampus volume as percent intracranial volume (CVLT-Hipp). Modified Mini-Mental State Examination (3MSE), Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), Multilingual Naming Test (MINT).
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