Fig. 1: Trade-offs between decarbonization, mitigation costs, and well-being.

In both panels, the horizontal axis represents the degree of decarbonization. a The top panel reports mitigation costs, which rise nonlinearly as decarbonization increases. The light-blue shaded region around the curve indicates uncertainty in the estimated costs. b The bottom panel reports the associated level of well-being for two conceptual trajectories, each surrounded by a light-blue uncertainty band. In both panels, the orange-filled circles highlight the case of integrated land-use planning, which achieves a relatively low degree of decarbonization at low cost while enhancing well-being. The vermillion-filled circles highlight electric vehicles, which contribute to a higher degree of decarbonization but at higher costs and with smaller well-being gains.