Introduction

The academic performance of university students stands as the cornerstone of higher education institutions, representing not just individual achievement but also the very essence of the educational endeavor. Academic performance in higher education institutions (HEIs) serves as the linchpin of the entire academic institutions (Rossi and Goglio 2020; Wang and Huang 2024), playing a pivotal role in shaping the future prospects of both students and the institutions themselves (Hundessa 2021). Therefore, HEIs serve as transformative platforms where students engage in intellectual growth and the development of cognitive abilities (Kek and Huijser 2011; Mohamed Hashim et al. 2022). Students’ academic performance in higher education institutions holds profound implications for both students and the institutions themselves. It serves as a bridge to future career opportunities, fosters intellectual growth, and contributes to an institution’s overall success and reputation (Hart and Rodgers 2023; Wang and Huang 2024). As such, it is imperative for both students and educational institutions to recognize and prioritize the pivotal role of academic performance in the pursuit of excellence in higher education.

In the dynamic landscape of higher education, the pursuit of academic excellence has always been paramount. However, to truly empower the students, one need to acknowledge that achieving academic success is not solely a matter of rigorous curriculum or traditional teaching methods. It’s a complex interplay of psychological, behavioral and environmental factors that cannot afford to overlook (Bardach and Klassen 2021; Trautwein and Köller 2003). There has been a growing interest in understanding the factors contributing to university students’ academic performance in recent years (Goodman et al. 2021; Harpaz et al. 2024; Wang and Huang 2024; Whelan et al. 2022; Zhang and Renshaw 2020). Numerous studies have explored various variables influencing academic success, including intelligence, motivation, study habits, and social support (Affuso et al. 2023; Lynam et al. 2024; McGuire et al. 2021; Wentzel et al. 2021). However, emerging research suggests that other psychological and behavioral factors may also play a significant role in predicting and improving the academic outcomes of university students (Feraco et al. 2023; Lo 2024; Zacharis and Nikolopoulou 2022). According to Wani and Dar (2017), who conducted a study on university students argued that optimism, self-esteem, and happiness have a direct impact on students’ academic performance, behavior, motivation, and emotions. Furthermore, supporting students’ holistic well-being has gained considerable attention in higher education institutions (Guo et al. 2024; McKay and Barton 2018; Oliveira et al. 2021). Given the impacts of mental health, well-being, and study engagement on university students, it is crucial to explore additional variables that could potentially influence their academic performance. One such area of interest is the relationship between university students’ academic performance and their level of mindfulness, subjective well-being, and their engagement in leisure activities e.g., engagement with music. Hence, the author revealed three gaps in the university students’ academic performance-associated literature through an inclusive review of previous studies, as specified in Table 1.

Table 1 Overview of prior studies related to mindfulness, wellbeing, music engagement and academic performance.
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Research gaps

Although mindfulness and academic performance have received attention in the extant literature, limitations still remain (Goodman et al. 2021; Kander et al. 2024; Tran et al. 2022; Verhaeghen 2023). First, there is a lack of empirical tests on the relationship between mindfulness and university students’ academic performance. As an important driving factor of academic performance, mindfulness plays an important role in current studies (Bortes et al. 2021; Goodman et al. 2021; Kennes et al. 2023). However, the current research on mindfulness accentuated mainly on its definition, as it is defined as the ability to be fully present and aware in the current moment without judgment, has benefitted individuals in various aspects of their lives, including academic performance (Egan et al. 2022). Broaden and build theory provides a framework for understanding the relationship between mindfulness and academic performance. According to broaden and build theory, positive emotions broaden an individual’s thought-action repertoire, increasing creativity, flexibility, and problem-solving abilities (Malinowski and Lim 2015; Stanley and Schutte 2023). As an important aspect of positive emotions, mindfulness can enhance academic performance by broadening students’ cognitive and emotional capacities. Research has shown that mindfulness training improves attention and working memory, leading to better information processing and retention (Schutte 2014; Xiang and Yuan 2021). Moreover, mindfulness cultivates positive emotions and emotional balance, creating a conducive learning environment and optimal performance (Johnson et al. 2021). The overall analysis of the relationship between students’ mindfulness and their academic performance is slightly insufficient.

Second, research on the internal mechanism of students’ mindfulness and their academic performance is inadequate. However, some researchers revealed the impact of mindfulness intervention on hyperactivities among school-going adolescents and believe that mindfulness has potential to reduce students’ psychological problems (Kennes et al. 2023) thereby increasing their creativity (Duong et al. 2022). However, these studies have ignored the combination of students’ positive emotions—mindfulness and their subjective wellbeing from the perspective of broaden and build theory to better analyze the internal mechanism of students’ mindfulness on their academic performance. Subjective well-being is a multifaceted construct that encompasses emotional, cognitive, and evaluative dimensions of an individual’s overall satisfaction and happiness (Cheng et al. 2020; Maricuțoiu et al. 2023; Wang and Huang 2023). In the context of the higher education, the students’ subjective wellbeing may be considered as a premium source of academic growth and as well as the progression of HEIs in term of scientific research and development. Moreover, Students with higher levels of well-being tend to exhibit greater motivation, resilience, and problem-solving abilities (Bortes et al. 2021; Datu et al. 2022; Whelan et al. 2022). They may better equipped to cope with academic challenges and setbacks, leading to improved academic performance. In recent years, HEIs widely depended on students’ scientific research activities, the focus of overall academic performance has gradually shifted towards students’ positive psychology, and their wellbeing. Nevertheless, how do the university students’ subjective wellbeing play a pivotal role between their mindfulness and academic performance? Existing scholarships have not provided a precise explanation.

Finally, it’s crucial to investigate the role of university students’ music engagement and its effect on the internal mechanism amongst their mindfulness, subjective wellbeing and academic performance. It is because, by different means every adolescent engages with music on daily bases (Gustavson et al. 2021). Recent studies have demonstrated that music has the ability to significantly reduce stress (Azaryahu et al. 2023; Cheng and Lam 2021; Krause et al. 2021), particularly during loneliness and pandemics period (Wang and Huang 2023). According to music psychologists, listening to music can help people relax, feel good, and express or regulate their emotions (Wang and Huang 2024). Research has shown that youngsters may become more receptive when they are cognitively benefitted due to their engagement with music (Román-Caballero et al. 2022). Therefore, music could potentially serve as a catalyst that amplifies youngsters’ mood and have positive effects on cognitive functioning, thereby indirectly impacting academic performance. Scholars have identified that music engagement—playing instruments or listening to music, can enhance cognitive abilities (Vincenzi et al. 2022; Walsh et al. 2021) such as memory, problem-solving, and creativity (Goltz and Sadakata 2021; Román-Caballero et al. 2022). Shared musical engagement often fosters positive social interactions, encouraging participants to shift their focus from individual experiences to a collective perspective (Rabinowitch 2023). People engage with music in numerous ways, with the concept of “musicality” broadly encompassing music engagement, perception, production skills, and formal training (Honing 2018). From a psychological perspective, research suggests that engaging with music can serve as a valuable tool for fostering self-expression, enhancing emotion regulation and coping mechanisms, and strengthening social connections (Ansdell and Meehan 2010; Gustavson et al. 2021). Physiologically, music engagement influences arousal levels, affecting metrics such as heart rate, and cortisol levels (Gustavson et al. 2021; Khalfa et al. 2003). These effects may be partially attributed to the physical characteristics of music, such as tempo, or the rhythmic movements involved in creating or listening to music, which can influence central nervous system function and lead to changes in autonomic activity (Gustavson et al. 2021). Therefore, music engagement may contribute to university students’ academic performance by enhancing their cognitive functions. But for the broader perspective, whether university students’ music engagement can play a stronger moderating role amongst students’ mindfulness, their subjective well being and academic performance is still lacking empirical support.

Research objective and associated research questions

The current study shed light on the combined influence of mindfulness, subjective well-being and music engagement shapes university students’ academic journey and progress. Understanding this dynamic phenomenon can assist educational practices and interventions to optimize students’ cognitive and emotional well-being, ultimately enhancing their academic success. In line with the above arguments, the author of this study introduces two variables—students’ subjective wellbeing and their music engagement that may act as a mediator and moderator, respectively, in the relationship between university students’ mindfulness and their academic performance based upon broaden-and-build theory. Although in the academic progress and achievement literature, scholars have greatly focused on wellbeing (Caban et al. 2023; Cheng et al. 2020; Whelan et al. 2022) and music engagement (Azaryahu et al. 2023; Gallardo et al. 2021) separately.

To the best of author’s knowledge these variables have never been introduced to empirically test together specifically to examine their role in the relationship between university students’ mindfulness and their academic performance. It therefore seems reasonable to consider them in explaining this relationship. Hence, the aim of the present study is to develop a better understanding of the causal effect of university students’ mindfulness on their academic performance by introducing the mediating role of subjective wellbeing and the moderating role of their music engagement in an empirical study, as shown in Fig. 1. In order to explore these relationships, the author carried out a quantitative analysis of a sample of 366 graduate and post university students from three Chinese universities (Guizhou University, Zhengzhou University and Nanjing University of Arts). These students are associated with research work and are likely to produce and publish their research articles in the upcoming years. Therefore, keeping in view the lack of research in cognition and academic performance, it is needed to dig into how mindfulness along with other essential factors—subjective well being and music engagement, influence academic performance amongst university students. Thus, based upon the aforementioned aim this study attempts to address the following research questions.

Fig. 1: Research model.
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H1: MFN–APE (direct hypothesis), H2: MFN–SWB (direct hypothesis), H3: SWB–APE (direct hypothesis), H4: MFN–SWB–APE (mediating hypothesis), H5: ME × MFN–SWB (moderating hypothesis), H6: ME × SWB–APE (moderating hypothesis), H7: ME–SWB–APE (ME at +1STD and −1STD) (moderated-mediation hypothesis).

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RQ1: Does university students’ mindfulness significantly influences their academic performance?

RQ2: Does the subjective well being mediates the relationship between university students’ mindfulness and their academic performance?

RQ3: Does the students’ music engagement moderates the relationship amongst mindfulness, their subjective well-being and academic performance?

Hypotheses development

To address the above-mentioned study objective and research questions, the subsequent hypotheses (as depicted in Fig. 1) essential to be examined.

H1: University students’ mindfulness has a direct, positive and significant effect on their academic performance.

H2: University students’ mindfulness has a significant, positive and direct effect on their subjective wellbeing.

H3: Students’ subjective wellbeing has a positive, significant and effect on their academic performance.

H4: Students’ subjective wellbeing significantly and positively mediates the relationship between mindfulness and their academic performance.

H5: Students’ music engagement has a moderating effect on their mindfulness and subjective wellbeing relationship.

H6: Students’ music engagement moderates their subjective wellbeing and academic performance relationship.

H7: Students’ subjective wellbeing strongly mediates the relationship between mindfulness and their academic performance when their music engagement is high.

Materials and methods

Sampling procedure

When a study endeavors to uncover a substantial connection between variables, opting for a quantitative approach stands out as the most fitting research methodology (Creswell et al. 2003). This study predominantly based on examining hypotheses derived from established theories, utilizing a deductive research methodology (Bryman 2007). To explore these hypotheses, a survey was implemented to gather data on the latent constructs embedded within the research model. The study’s target sample comprises university students studying in a set of Chinese universities. The reasons for choosing university students as research sample are, firstly, researchers posits that university students are a highly significant subset that is likely to be representative of a given population (Kim 2014). Secondly, they have been frequently chosen as research participants in various studies related to behavior-oriented and social psychology studies (Cheng et al. 2020; Creswell and Creswell 2017; Dai et al. 2020; Yassin et al. 2021). Consequently, the present study has chosen university graduate and post-graduate students as the study sample to investigate their mindfulness, subjective wellbeing and their musical engagement, as these precursors may serve as driving forces for their Academic performance.

In addition, this study engaged a non-probabilistic convenience sample of university graduate and post graduate students, as they are consistently engaged with academic research work and academic progress throughout their university period. They are considered ideal study participants due to their engagement with research publishing activities and their significant role in facilitating latest research contribution in their respective disciplines (Horta and Li 2023).

In line with previous research practices (Ooi 2014), the author of this study distributed a total of 604 questionnaires with official approval to university students studying in various levels, including Bachelors, Masters, and PhD, and seeking their collaboration in data collection. These individuals possessed knowledge of their academic and research progress, making them well-suited for the task. Various data collection methods were utilized, including the distribution of online questionnaires and self-administered forms. Out of the 477 questionnaires received, 111 responses were excluded due to incomplete or inaccurate information, leaving 366 valid questionnaires. This resulted in an impressive response rate of 60.59%. For a detailed insight into the research sample, encompassing pertinent demographic and control variables, refer to Table 2.

Table 2 Demographic profile of respondents.
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Study instruments

The survey instruments were meticulously crafted drawing from existing research to evaluate the substantial effect university students’ mindfulness on their academic performance, along with the mediating effect of their subjective wellbeing in pursuit of academic performance. In addition, this study presents a unique moderated-mediation effect students’ musical engagement on their academic performance. Furthermore, the questionnaire encompassed gathering essential demographic information about the participants, including aspects such as age, gender, education level, associated university. The item scales employed in the survey were designed as 5-point Likert-type scales, with respondents indicating their agreement level on a scale ranging from 1, signifying “strongly disagree,” to 5, denoting “strongly agree.” This approach ensured a comprehensive assessment of the research constructs and demographic variables.

The study’s independent variable, mindfulness (MFN), is evaluated using items derived from reputable sources. For MFN, four items were drawn from the work of Khan and Abbas (2022) and Tran et al. (2022). The construct of subjective wellbeing (SWB) was assessed with five items adopted from the research of Habe et al. (2021) and Ratner et al. (2023). Furthermore, the dependent variable—academic performance (APE) was evaluated using five items adopted from Ishiguro et al. (2023). To investigate the moderating effects of students’ music engagement (ME), this study utilized five items from the research of Wang and Huang (2024). Table 4 offers a comprehensive overview of the measurement approach employed for the constructs in the study. In addition, all the survey constructs and items have been presented in the Appendix.

Prior research has consistently highlighted the influential role of sample demographic characteristics, including their age, gender, level of education, etc. in shaping students wellbeing and their resultant behavior (Katsantonis et al. 2023; Trolian et al. 2022). Hence, in order to accommodate these effects, the study integrates these demographic factors as control variables.

Data analysis and results

In this study use of structural equation modeling (SEM), significantly enhances its methodological rigor. SEM is a highly effective analytical technique frequently applied in research involving intricate models with multiple latent constructs (Zhang et al. 2024, Riaz et al. 2025), as it simultaneously evaluates relationships between observed and latent variables. Following established research protocols (Riaz et al. 2023), the researchers employed a two-phase SEM approach.

In the initial phase, the measurement model was validated, ensuring that each construct was reliably and accurately represented by its associated indicators. This step serves as the foundation of the analysis, confirming that the measured items effectively capture the constructs they are intended to reflect. The subsequent phase involved applying the structural model, which explores the relationships among constructs and tests the study’s hypotheses concerning latent variable interactions.

Moreover, the study’s sample size aligns well with SEM requirements, adhering to recommended standards. In SEM research, a minimum sample size of 200 is generally acceptable, while a sample of 300 or more is preferred for enhancing model robustness and result validity (Zhang et al. 2024). By meeting these benchmarks, the study ensures reliable analysis and strengthens the generalizability of its findings. The adoption of SEM with an appropriately sized sample provides a robust and statistically rigorous framework for investigating complex relationships among variables, enabling the derivation of meaningful insights into factors driving students’ musical achievement.

SEM, particularly with the Smart-PLS approach, plays a crucial role for several reasons. It offers a potent tool to model complex relationships and interactions among multiple latent constructs, thereby enabling a thorough understanding of psychological concepts. Smart PLS distinguishes itself by its ability to adeptly manage both formative and reflective constructs. This aligns seamlessly with the intricate and multifaceted nature of items within the realm of behavior and psychological concepts. Moreover, Smart PLS provides robust tools for hypothesis testing and model examination. This methodology permits researchers to quantitatively measure and validate complex theoretical models, verifying invaluable for the progression of the attitude-behavior and psychological research field. The advantages and suitability of the Smart PLS approach in this context have been underscored by numerous researchers, such as Hair et al. (2016), citing its flexibility, practicality, and reliability in modeling complex psychological phenomena. Moreover, PLS-SEM has been frequently employed in similar studies to validate the research model (Qin and Tao 2021). As a result of these considerations, the author opted SEM using Smart PLS 4 as the chosen methodology for the current study.

Common method bias

In order to assess the potential presence of common method bias in the collected data, Harman’s Single Factor Test was conducted. This test involves performing a Principal Component Analysis on all items in the dataset to determine the number of un-rotated factors. In this analysis, a common guideline is to consider the variance explained by the first factor. If the first factor explains less than 50% of the variance, it suggests that common method bias is not a significant concern. As per the established threshold, the first factor explains 35.452% of the variance, which is less than the 40% threshold, indicating that common method bias is not a significant concern in this study. The results of the analysis, as shown in Table 3 below, support this conclusion.

Table 3 Common method bias.
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Measurement model results

The assessment of the reliability and validity of the constructs within the research framework involved the evaluation of the measurement model. For each construct—as presented in Table 4, loadings, Variance Inflation Factor (VIF), Cronbach’s Alpha (Cα), Composite Reliability (CR), and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) were analyzed. Factor loadings, which signify the strength of the connection between items and their corresponding constructs, reveal the degree to which items contribute to the measurement of the underlying constructs (Fornell and Larcker 1981). As shown in Fig. 2, factor loadings were substantial for all the items (>0.5), affirming the reliability of the measurement model (Hair et al. 2014; Malik and Malik 2021; Qin and Tao 2021). The Variance Inflation Factor (VIF), serving as an indicator of multicollinearity, was scrutinized to confirm the absence of significant issues related to high inter-item correlation. Such issues could potentially result in biased parameter estimates (Kock 2015). The VIF values did not exceed acceptable thresholds (<5), indicating that multicollinearity was not a concern. Cα and CR served as measures of internal consistency and reliability for each construct. These reliability coefficients exceeded the recommended thresholds of 0.7 for each construct (Hair et al. 2014), demonstrating that the items within each construct consistently measured the same underlying concept. AVE was examined to assess the convergent validity of the constructs. AVE values indicate the proportion of variance captured by the items within each construct (Fornell and Larcker 1981). AVE values met or exceeded the recommended threshold (Fornell and Larcker 1981), confirming the convergent validity of the constructs. These results provide strong support for the reliability and validity of the measurement model, ensuring that the constructs are accurately and consistently measured in the study, see Table 4.

Table 4 Reliability and validity results.
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Fig. 2
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Measurement model.

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Discriminant validity

Discriminant validity for the measurement model underwent thorough evaluation through two established criteria: the Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) ratio and the Fornell-Larcker criterion (as shown in Table 5). The HTMT ratio revealed that the correlations between constructs were significantly below the recommended threshold of 0.85 (Henseler et al. 2015), approving discriminant validity. Likewise, the Fornell-Larcker criterion demonstrated that the square root of the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) for each construct surpassed the correlations with other constructs. This finding indicates that each construct exhibits more shared variance with its respective items than with items from other constructs (Fornell and Larcker 1981). These results provide robust evidence of discriminant validity, ensuring that the constructs are distinct and not highly correlated with each other.

Table 5 Discriminant validity results.
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Predictive relevance

Before testing hypotheses, the author conducted an analysis of effect size (f2), coefficient of determination (R2), and predictive relevance (Q2). The effect size, in this context, assesses whether exogenous factors have a significant impact on endogenous variables (Götz et al. 2010) categorized f2 into small (0.02 to 0.15), medium (0.15 to 0.35), and large (>0.35) effect sizes. As depicted in Table 6, the effect size of the variables in the present study spans from small to medium. Additionally, the R2 and R2 adjusted values for APE (0.503, 0.498) and SWB (0.437, 0.432) were deemed satisfactory, affirming the model’s predictive capability. Moreover, the Q2 values for both latent variables are significantly greater than zero, indicating the model’s significance (Hair et al. 2016). Table 6 summarizes the predictive power results.

Table 6 Effect size, coefficient of determination and predictive relevance.
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Structural model assessment

The research encompasses three direct hypotheses, one indirect hypothesis, two moderating hypotheses, and one moderated mediating hypothesis. Validation of these hypotheses relied on the examination of path coefficients and their statistical significance. The outcomes of the hypotheses are depicted in Fig. 3, and detailed results can be found in Tables 7 and 8, respectively.

Fig. 3
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Structural model.

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Table 7 Hypotheses results.
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Table 8 Moderated mediation results.
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In accordance with the recommendations outlined by Hair et al. (2019), the author adopted the bootstrapping approach (5000 resamples) to evaluate the structural model. Initially, the focus was on examining the direct relationships between the constructs. As presented in Table 7, hypotheses H1 and H2 relating to the positive effects of MFN on APE and SWB, are supported. Specifically, MFN’s influence on SWB (β = 0.426; p < 0.001) is more significant than MFN’s direct effect on APE (β = 0.125; p < 0.05). Besides, H3 presents that SWB has the most significant effect of APE (β = 0.507; p < 0.001) among all direct relationships, see Fig. 3 and Tables 7 and 9.

Table 9 Overall hypotheses and interpretations.
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To provide evidence on the mediating role of SWB between mindfulness (MFN) and academic performance (APE), further analyses were conducted to verify the magnitude and the statistical significance of the indirect effects. Following the suggestion of Preacher and Hayes (2008), this study used the bootstrap confidence intervals method with 5000 iterations to test the significance of indirect effects (Tables 7 and 9). For H4, results revealed that MFN → SWB → APE (β = 0.216 and p < 0.001), and were significant, thus supporting H4. In other words, the results first indicated that SWB partially mediate the MFN’s influence on APE.

Moreover, H5, and H6 studies proposed the moderating effects of music engagement (ME) on the influence of MFN on SWB and SWB on APE, respectively. As results presented in Table 7, the interaction between MFN and ME is insignificantly related to SWB (β = 0.072, p > 0.05). Moreover, the interaction between SWB and ME has a positive and significant impact on APE (β = 0.080, p < 0.05), as shown in Fig. 4. Thus, H5 is not supported, while H6 is supported. Furthermore, the moderating effects were plotted by applying the suggestions of Stone and Hollenbeck (1989). As shown in Fig. 4, the relationship between SWB and APE strengthens when ME is high. Therefore, H6 is supported.

Fig. 4: Moderating effect of ME on SWB → APE relationship.
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Music engagement (ME) strengthens the positive relationship between subjective wellbeing (SWB) and academic performance (APE).

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In Table 8, the moderated mediation results shed light on the conditional indirect effect at different levels of ME for an essential hypothesis i.e., Hypothesis 7. For hypothesis 7, the analysis reveals that the indirect impact of MFN on APE through the mediator SWB is contingent on the level of ME. When ME is one standard deviation above the mean (+1 SD), the conditional indirect effect is estimated to be 0.273 (p < 0.001). In addition, when ME is one standard deviation below the mean (−1 SD), the conditional indirect effect decreases to 0.143 (p < 0.001). The difference is estimated as 0.130 and statistically significant i.e., p < 0.001. These results signify that the mediation process through SWB is more pronounced and impactful when ME is high, highlighting the moderating role of ME in this pathway. Therefore, these results provide robust support for the positive and significant moderating role of students music engagement in the relationships between MFN, SWB and APE in educational institutions. For overall hypotheses interpretation, see Table 9.

Discussion

Current study investigates three pivotal research questions: Does university students’ mindfulness significantly influences their academic performance? Whether the subjective well being mediates the relationship between students’ mindfulness and their academic performance? Does the students’ music engagement moderates the relationships amongst mindfulness, subjective well-being and their academic performance? These research questions are aligned with “Broaden and Build Theory” by considering the substantial role of mindfulness, an integral part of students’ daily routine activity, plays a vital role in enhancing their subjective well-being and overall academic performance. Besides, their music engagement, whether through listening or playing, may complement this integration by providing a therapeutic and immersive experience, further enriching their emotional landscape. In other words, engaging with music, can elevate mood, increase motivation, and even enhance cognitive functions like memory and attention, thus enhancing the prospective for the exhibition of individual performance. The empirical evidence from university students supports this study’s majority of hypotheses and deepen the knowledge and understanding of the relevant theories of mindfulness, subjective wellbeing, engagement with music, and academic performance. This study contributes to the current body of literature in the following aspects.

First, according to H1a, the direct relationship between mindfulness (MFN) and academic performance (APE) is positive and significant. The empirical findings clarify that a university student who pays attention to purpose in the present moment can acquire better academic performance i.e., having sound academic progress. This finding confirms (Khan and Abbas 2022) that a stronger level of mindfulness can bring forth individual’s creative performance. On the other hand, it contradicts to the findings of Hafenbrack and Vohs (2018), who elucidated that there is no any positive and significant association between mindfulness and task performance. There are several reasons why the relationship between students’ mindfulness and academic performance is positive and significant. A rationale explanation to support this study’s finding is that by fostering emotional regulation, mindfulness helps students to navigate challenges and setbacks, and positively influencing their approach to academics. Besides, students who regularly practice mindfulness techniques such as meditation and deep breathing experience reduced stress levels and improved focus, which in turn positively impacts their academic performance. Henceforth, scholars have discerned that students adept at maintaining their focus in the present moment exhibit enhanced work habits, refined planning abilities, and heightened organizational skills, ultimately resulting in better performance in examinations and task solving (Kennes et al. 2023). Additionally, mindfulness helps students to develop self-regulation skills, allowing them to manage their emotions and impulses effectively. This enables students to stay focused and engaged in their studies, leading to better retention and understanding of the material. Furthermore, mindfulness enhances students’ emotional regulation and self-awareness, leading to better decision-making and problem-solving skills. By being more present and aware of their thoughts and emotions, students are better equipped to handle academic challenges and navigate complex tasks with clarity and resilience. This heightened cognitive ability ultimately contributes to higher academic achievement and overall success in educational pursuits.

Second, this study reveals that results have also supported the association of mindfulness with students’ subjective wellbeing (SWB) thus, supported H2, which is in alliance with (Lyall et al. 2021). They considered mindfulness as one of the essential precursors of SWB, as it engages specific emotional regulation and cognitive mechanisms. The results provide more support for the anticipated link between mindfulness and subjective wellbeing (Lyall et al. 2023; Ratner et al. 2023). Placing these findings in the context of existing research, Fredrickson’s (2001) broaden-and build-theory of positive emotions can help us to comprehend the connection between mindfulness and university students’ enhanced subjective well-being. Psychologists have argued that positive emotions, such as mindfulness skills and a sense of purpose in life, are simultaneously related with the mental satisfaction and wellbeing (Fredrickson et al. 2008). A rationale explanation to support the current study outcome is that when students experience positive emotions, they are more likely to engage in exploratory behaviors that increase the likelihood of future positive performances and outcomes. Therefore, students who practice mindfulness, they develop a heightened awareness of their thoughts and emotions, leading to better stress management and emotional regulation. This improved mental state significantly boosts their subjective well-being, fostering a sense of happiness and contentment.

Third, students’ subjective wellbeing (SWB) has a significant influence on their academic performance (APE) and supports H3. These results are inline with Cárdenas et al. (2022) and Cho and Frizzell’s (2024) findings, indicating that students with higher subjective well-being—characterized by higher life satisfaction and lower stress levels tended to achieve higher course grades compared to their counterparts experiencing greater stress and dissatisfaction. Therefore, a suitable explanation for the current study’s findings is that subjective wellbeing, which encompasses emotional, cognitive, and overall life satisfaction, positively influences university students’ ability to learn. Higher subjective wellbeing is associated with a positive mental state that enhances cognitive abilities and openness to new experiences, facilitating engagement with academic material and effective application of knowledge. Additionally, greater subjective wellbeing is linked to lower stress levels, enabling students to approach learning tasks with clarity and resilience, ultimately leading to improved academic performance on projects and research tasks.

Fourth, this research outcomes suggest that students’ subjective well-being significantly and positively mediates the relationship between their mindfulness and academic performance, hence, supporting H4. The results verify Harpaz et al.’s (2024) research work in which they claimed a strong mediating role of university students SWB between psychological factors—self efficacy and self-cultivation characteristics, and their academic achievement. Therefore, one can argue that positive emotions, such as those cultivated through mindfulness, are associated with optimal functioning and performance in various domains, including academics. When students experience higher levels of subjective well-being, they are more likely to approach their academic tasks with a positive mindset; leading to improved focus, motivation, and problem-solving abilities. In addition, subjective well-being serves as a mediator in this relationship by facilitating the integration of mindfulness-related skills and attitudes into academic contexts. As university students experience greater well-being, they may become more engaged in their learning and research progressive processes, exhibit higher levels of persistence, and demonstrate better academic performance. Consequently, the broaden-and-build theory posits that positive emotions broaden an individual’s thought-action repertoire, enhancing their cognitive abilities, social connections, and overall well-being which, in turn, enhance students’ academic performance.

Fifth, surprisingly, the author identified that there is no any significant and moderating effect of students’ music engagement on the relationship between mindfulness and their subjective well-being, hence H5 is unsupportive. This finding contradicts with the study of Czajkowski et al. (2022), who found positive effects of music use and mindfulness on subjective well-being, respectively. A rationale explanation based upon the study findings is that, both music engagement and mindfulness have individual benefits separately on university students’ subjective well-being; the interaction between the two may not positively and significantly impact subjective well-being, collectively. Despite the initial hypothesis that music engagement would amplify the relationship between mindfulness and well-being, the results suggest that other factors may play a more significant role in shaping students’ subjective well-being.

According to the study’s 6th hypothesis, students’ music engagement have a significant and positive moderating effect on the relationship between their subjective well-being and academic performance, therefore, H6 considered supportive and acceptable. The study finding is inline with Hogenes et al. (2016) and Sun (2022), who noted that musical activities—daily playing melodies on musical instruments and listening to pleasant music reduces stress and improved academic achievement. In addition, Kwon et al. (2020) added that music concert attendance, both at the student and school level, can enhance psychological well-being, particularly for students with lower initial levels. In the light of these findings one can believe that music engagement can have a significant and positive moderating effect on the relationship between students’ well-being and academic performance. A rationale explanation to support the current study finding is that, on daily bases students who spend a couple of hours or more in amusement activities i.e., playing musical instruments, engaged in sports, exercise, dance, singing, etc. having higher life satisfaction and low stress levels tended to be more creative and more smarter than their counterparts who remain indulge in their curricular activities thought the day. These findings also align with the Broaden and Build theory, which suggests that positive emotions and engagement can broaden individuals’ thought-action repertoires and build their personal resources, ultimately leading to improved academic performance.

Lastly, prior studies have demonstrated that the ME enhances aesthetic experience, musical achievement and satisfaction with chosen major (Habe et al. 2021; Wald-Fuhrmann et al. 2023). This study also highlights the necessity of investigating the potential moderating mechanism of students’ musical engagement on the relationship between psychological factors and APE (Wang and Huang 2024). To address these theoretical gaps, the present study examined whether university students ME moderates the indirect connection of psychological factor—MFN with APE through SWB. Interestingly, the findings indicate that there is a conditional indirect effect of ME amongst MNF, SWB and APE relationship, and MFN—SWB—APE relationship is more stronger when the students’ music engagement is high, thus supporting H7. This means that university students’ ME has a substantial impact on how their MFN—SWB—APE relationship exist. Conversely, Sun (2022) found that musical activities positively impacts psychological wellbeing of students during their academic journey. As Chang et al. (2021) identified that listening music is a form of meditative techniques that can connect a person with the objectives of life and may focus his mind in the present moment without any conflict. These findings collectively emphasizes students’ ME critical role as a catalyst to defuse the academic stress and workload by strengthening the relationship between their cognitive and psychological factors and their routine activities, highlighting its importance in achieving their academic progress.

Implications

Theoretical implications

This research also offers multiple theoretical implications. In previous studies, students’ academic performance, mindfulness, subjective wellbeing and their music engagement had rarely been discussed together. This study extends Bartos et al. (2024) who found that relaxation, consciousness, attention, transcendence, and fulfillment program, based on mindfulness, yoga, emotional intelligence, and positive psychology, was conceived as a method for self-actualization and happiness, that may influence music students academic life. Hence, based upon Broaden-and-build theory, the research model offers a aesthetic insight into the substantial double role of students’ mindfulness that have positive direct effect on students’ academic performance as well as having an indirect effect through the mediator—students’ subjective wellbeing, simultaneously.

Besides, the findings reveal that as amusement activity—students’ music engagement act as a catalyst to decrease students stress level and strengthens their subjective wellbeing that having substantial effects on their academic performance. Hence, its has been anticipated that music engagement has been linked to emotional regulation and stress reduction (Wang and Huang 2023, 2024). The active involvement of students in music has the potential to positively impact their subjective well-being. Consequently, this could enhance their overall emotional health and life contentment, potentially acting as a protective barrier against academic pressure. Engaging with music may not have a direct impact on one’s subjective well-being but also strengthens the relationship amongst mindfulness, subjective well-being, and academic performance. These outcomes substantiate the broaden-and-build framework and propose that optimistic mental and psychological assets broaden the thought-action inventories and support university students in having their minds on what they are doing, not worrying about future stress, that having a significant effect on their academic satisfaction and fosters their academic process. Furthermore, it was also established that on daily bases students who engaged in fun activity having high life satisfaction and low levels of academic stress. Finally, It authenticates the Broaden and Builds theory, proposing that positive approach broadens the thought process and builds an individual’s psychological resources, composed reflection of life satisfaction that collectively leads to individual competencies or better performance

Practical implications

This study exhibited the importance of creating an environment that focuses on the cognitive aspects of university students’ psychology involving mindfulness, subjective wellbeing and their musical activities. It plays an important role in ensuring students’ academic performance. Thus, the leadership and management in HEIs should augment their assurance to the students’ mindfulness training to enhance their wellbeing, and APE. Mindfulness training is a multi-dimensional intervention deeply rooted in the positive psychology doctrine (Kudesia et al. 2022). Such training enhance students’ academic growth, reduce variability, and influence academic task-directed behavior. Furthermore, educationists need to concerned about initiatives on campus psychological rehab-programs that fosters students life satisfaction which ultimately have a positive impacts on their academic journey.

Another important avenue of the current study is the substantial moderating role of fun activities. i.e., student music engagement that will strengthen overall psychology of students during their university life. To do so, the management of HEIs need to introduce co-curricular music classes for every student, even twice in a week. This will indirectly help students to lessen stress and having a positive impact of their academic progress and growth.

Limitations and future research

Future studies should take into account the limitations of this research. The impact of musical involvement on students’ academic performance has been extensively studied. Current research has focused on understanding the role of subjective wellbeing as a mediating mechanism and the moderated-mediation of music engagement in relation to academic performance. Future research should investigate additional aspects of the educational field, such as the correlation between the psychological well-being of mentors and the academic advancement of the students. Furthermore, since the data was solely obtained from Chinese HEIs, the applicability of the findings to other situations may be restricted. Further research can investigate the study model in other study contexts. The cross-sectional method employed in this study does not exclude the potential for a long-term causal relationship resulting from alterations in students’ motives, satisfaction, and musical behavior over time. Hence, future research endeavors seeking to evaluate the accuracy of the study’s model could employ longitudinal data to obtain a more thorough comprehension. In addition, the present study has explored the impact of overall music involvement among university students. However, future research might explore the influence of other music genres, such as cultural, classical, rap, etc., on students’ academic advancement and personal development in diverse educational settings. The data for this study has been obtained from university students. However, future researchers may gather data from various samples, such as parents, teachers, and peers, to investigate the correlation between their music preferences and its potential influence on their daily lives or overall life satisfaction.

Conclusion

This study depending upon broaden-and-build theory, sought to examine how university students’ mindfulness leads to their APE via their subjective wellbeing and investigate the moderating and moderated mediation impacts of their music engagement using primary data from graduate and post graduate students studying in a set of Chinese HEIs. First, students’ mindfulness significantly stimulates APE. A university student who pays attention to purpose in the present moment can acquire better academic performance. Second, the research shows that students’ subjective wellbeing acts as an important psychological factor in their academic activities and increases the association between their mindfulness and academic performance, which addresses the study’s second purpose. Therefore, to improve students’ academic performance, policymakers in HEIs should introduce such programs that may positively influence students’ life satisfaction and wellbeing which ultimately strengthens their overall all academic performance. Third, the most fascinating outcome was empirical evidence of the moderating and moderated-mediation effects of students’ music engagement on the relationship amongst their mindfulness, subjective wellbeing and academic performance, resulting in overall excellence of students as well as recognition of HEIs, simultaneously.