Primers

Waves are ubiquitous in nature and occur across various scales and settings. In this Primer, Jafarzadeh et al. discuss techniques for preprocessing and analysing waves, including information on choosing the appropriate methods based on wave properties, and present worked examples using synthetic datasets.

Carbon–carbon triple bonds exhibit a distinct Raman response in the region of 1,800–2,800 cm⁻¹, known as the cellularly silent region. This unique chemical signature, coupled with the small size of alkyne moieties, presents these tags as useful imaging alternatives to bulky fluorescent probes. This Primer discusses the various Raman scattering processes used to image alkyne tags in cells, including the optical set-up required, how to choose an alkyne tag and imaging results from different cellular environments.

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy is an atomic optical-emission technique that can provide elemental analysis of an untreated sample at a distance, in solid, liquid or gaseous state. This Primer discusses the process and optimization of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, the complexities of spectral analysis and the range of possible applications.

Multiphoton 3D lithography (MP3DL) is a manufacturing technique that uses non-linear optics to generate 3D microstructures or nanostructures. This Primer describes the key principles behind MP3DL, design considerations behind the writing material and experimental set-up, and the wide range of applications of the technique.

Computational protein design uses information on the constraints of the biological and physical properties of proteins for protein engineering and de novo protein design. In this Primer, Albanese et al. give an overview of the guiding principles of computational protein design and its considerations, methods and applications and conclude by discussing the future of the technique in the context of rapidly advancing computational tools.

Ultra-fast optical time-domain transformation (UO-TDT) techniques are used to encode spatial and spectral information from ultra-short pulses into the time domain. In this Primer, Zhang et al. cover the physical and mathematical basis of UO-TDT and its application in various imaging platforms, and conclude with an outlook on how these techniques could be applied to novel applications and imaging modalities.

Phage therapy uses bacteriophages to target bacteria and treat infections. In this Primer, Skurnik et al. discuss the practical aspects of phage therapy, from the microbiological methods used to prepare and characterize phages to the selection of therapeutic phages for clinical applications.

Using two gas chromatography columns and a mass spectrometer, comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC×GC–MS) is a powerful tool for separating and analysing gas-phase compounds. This Primer provides an overview of GC×GC–MS, including experimental set-up, analysis and applications in food science, environmental studies, petrochemicals and various -omics fields.

Metagenomics describes the analysis of genetic information in a microbial community to provide taxonomic or functional information on the constituent microorganisms. This Primer describes suitable sample types, sampling handling and processing workflows for metagenomics, and gives a detailed discussion of the various analysis techniques to generate meaningful information from metagenomic data.

Metal halide perovskite solar cells are emerging as next-generation photovoltaics, offering an alternative to silicon-based cells. This Primer gives an overview of how to fabricate the photoactive layer, electrodes and charge transport layers in perovskite solar cells, including assembly into devices and scale-up for future commercial viability.

Atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) is a technique that employs the transfer of a halogen or pseudohalogen group between a catalyst and a monomeric or polymeric radical to generate and elongate polymers, respectively. In this Primer, Harrisson et al. describe considerations for ATRP, its available initiators, catalysts and mechanisms, the range of structures that can be generated and techniques for assessing the ATRP product, concluding with an overview of upcoming developments in the field.

Low-intensity focused ultrasound offers non-invasive neuromodulation, targeting deep brain structures with adjustable parameters. In this Primer, Legon and Strohman discuss mechanisms and safety considerations and highlight findings from clinical applications, emphasizing its potential as a tool in neuroscience and therapeutic interventions.

N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A) is an mRNA modification influencing gene expression. Advanced methodologies for mapping m⁶A enhance understanding of its dynamic roles and interactions. In this Primer, Moshitch-Moshkovitz et al. discuss various detection tools and analysis techniques facilitating insights into RNA epitranscriptomics.

X-ray absorption spectroscopy is an element-specific and orbital-specific technique that can probe local atomic and electronic structures, without the need for long-range order. This Primer discusses the background principles, experimental methods and data analysis processes used in X-ray absorption spectroscopy to derive oxidation states, coordination and bond lengths of solids, liquids and gases.

Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography is used to fabricate features with nanometre-scale resolution. This Primer explores how EUV lithography can be applied to manufacture semiconductor devices, explaining lithographic tools, photoresists and potential future developments.

Uniform manifold approximation and projection is a dimensionality reduction technique used to visualize and understand high-dimensional data. In this Primer, Healy and McInnes outline the use of the uniform manifold approximation and projection algorithm and its application to diverse data.

Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy can offer insights into biological processes such as metabolic imaging, protein–protein interactions and live-cell intracellular dynamics. In this Primer, Torrado et al. discuss methods for measuring fluorescence lifetimes, including time-tagging and phase-modulation shift methods, along with fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy setup variations.

Artificial metalloenzymes harness metal cofactors that are not naturally found in enzymes and embed these in specifically selected or designed protein scaffolds. In this Primer, Vornholt et al. describe the best practices for designing and engineering artificial metalloenzymes.

Chromatin tracing involves the direct mapping of 3D chromatin folding in situ, and can be applied at a number of genomic scales and to a wide range of cell types and model organisms. In this Primer, Yang & Wang discuss the design of chromatin tracing experiments, data analysis procedures and how chromatin tracing can be combined with multi-modal imaging.

Non-viral vectors offer scalable, cost-effective alternatives for chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy. In this Primer, Tretbar et al. highlight advances in the use of non-viral approaches, gene delivery methods, clinical outcomes and key considerations for translating these technologies into practice.