Introduction

Pre-service teachers, poised to become educational leaders, hold a crucial responsibility for shaping the future of secondary school students. Their professional competence significantly influences the development of these students, rendering it immensely valuable for research purposes (Moorhouse 2018; Power et al. 2017). In recent decades, there has been a burgeoning international interest in the exploration of diverse forms of pre-service teacher research within the field of teacher education (Van Katwijk et al. 2021). Researchers in numerous countries have conducted comprehensive investigations into various facets of pre-service teacher dynamics, primarily centering on the following domains. Firstly, they have scrutinized pre-service teachers’ professional development, encompassing aspects such as teaching practices and instructional experiences (Dijkema et al. 2019). Secondly, their inquiry has revolved around the ethical growth of pre-service teachers, including their perspectives on teacher ethics and professional identities (Ye and Law 2019; Lutovac 2020). Lastly, considerable attention has been devoted to the psychological well-being of pre-service teachers, covering factors like psychological resilience, overall well-being, mindfulness, and emotional regulation capabilities (Birchinall et al. 2019). Yet there is a noticeable scarcity of research that specifically explores the research capabilities of pre-service teachers through the analysis of their academic theses, even though such theses are key to the provision of future-proof educators (Van Katwijk et al. 2021).

Undoubtedly, as of today, a significant number of normal universities continue to play a vital role in cultivating reserves of talent for China’s schools. There are currently 215 normal universities and colleges spread across the country. Of these, six are affiliated with the Ministry of Education, 40 are designated as key provincial institutions, and the remaining 169 are considered ordinary normal universities (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China 2022a). There are significant variations in faculty expertize, academic accomplishments, duration of schooling, and effectiveness of educational and teaching reforms across different levels of these normal universities. However, most graduates from these institutions, especially those in basic disciplines, aspire to pursue teaching as a career (Du 2011; Wang 2020). Regrettably, graduates from provincial normal universities often encounter challenges in securing employment in provincial capitals. As a result, they are compelled to seek job opportunities in lower-tier cities, leading to a downward shift in their occupational prospects and choices (Zhou 2023). Bachelor’s degree holders facing challenges in finding ideal jobs often opt to study for a master’s degree. They deem this to be a pathway to securing better teaching positions in primary and secondary schools. Nonetheless, pursuing further educational qualifications to improve individual competitiveness in the job market is no longer a panacea. In July 2023, the Ministry of Education issued a document entitled Opinions of the Ministry of Education on Implementing the National Program for Cultivating Outstanding Teachers in Primary and Secondary Schools. This document endorses the selection of exemplary students from top-tier universities who demonstrate exceptional academic performance and possess a strong desire and aptitude for teaching, to serve as graduate representatives in the National Excellence Program. This initiative aims to nurture a group of high-quality science curriculum teachers at the graduate level. It has created significant pressure on normal universities that specialize in teacher preparation. As top-notch secondary schools strive to enhance educational standards by recruiting excellent graduates and comprehensive universities contribute to secondary schools through the National Excellence Program, a two-way talent exchange channel has emerged between them. This poses multifaceted challenges for normal universities, compelling them to enhance the quality of their teacher training. They must not merely focus on the teaching abilities of pre-service teachers, which constitute their traditional strength, but also place greater emphasis on nurturing graduates’ research capabilities, ultimately enhancing their overall competitiveness.

Another fact that requires clarification is that normal universities in mainland China offer two main types of graduate programs tailored to foster talent in basic education. The first type is the professional master’s degree program, predominantly provided within the corresponding basic subject colleges. This program focuses on specialized training in specific subject areas with an emphasis on practical skills and applications. The second type is the academic master’s degree program, commonly offered by a College of Education. This program places a strong emphasis on theoretical knowledge and research in the field of education itself. These two types of degrees significantly differ in terms of duration, educational objectives, and graduation requirements. The typical duration for a professional master’s degree program is two years, with some extending to three years, while most academic master’s degree programs span three years. The primary objective of the professional master’s degree program is to cultivate capable and qualified teachers for basic education, whereas a significant proportion of academic master’s degree graduates are inclined to pursue further studies, aiming for a doctoral degree. For the professional master’s degree, the ‘Double Tutor System’ is implemented; this involves both an on-campus tutor and an off-campus tutor assigned to the graduate students (Wang 2020). Despite the dual supervision of both on-campus and off-campus tutors for professional master’s degree graduates, the involvement of off-campus tutors is often insufficient, as their evaluation is not explicitly tied to the quality of graduate education. Additionally, insufficient involvement and a scarcity of institutionally standardized guidance can lead to a lack of depth in the selection of topics for their master’s theses, with more of a reliance on practicality rather than novelty (Shi et al. 2011; Liu and Qin 2016; Zhang 2019). In contrast, the thesis topics for academic master’s degree candidates tend to be more theoretical in nature, demanding higher levels of innovative results (Hu 2006). The term ‘pre-service teacher’ in our investigation applies to master’s graduate students enrolled in the STG professional degree program.

In the 14th Five-Year Plan (2021–2025) for National Economic and Social Development and Vision 2035 in the People’s Republic of China, the stated aim is for the number of professional master’s degree graduates to be gradually increased. As of 2020, professional master’s degree enrollment takes up over 55% of the total postgraduate enrollment (Tang and Wang 2022). The rising number of professional master’s degree graduates has contributed to their growing importance in the field of basic education. This development has been a pivotal factor inspiring this study’s focus on this specific group. However, the increase in the number of professional master’s degree graduates has not been accompanied by corresponding reforms in training systems and improvements in cultivating quality. Recently, under the increasingly stringent degree theses review system in Chinese academia, professional master’s degree theses have revealed problems such as inappropriate topic selection, lapses in academic writing, mixed thesis formats, and inadequate research methods. Likewise, subject-focused professional master’s programs provided by normal universities manifest similar shortcomings, contradicting the educational philosophy and objectives of fostering exceptional pre-service teachers. This situation has left normal universities unable to compete with comprehensive universities (Wu and Yan 2009). Of all the subjects related to basic education, the only exception is geography. Geography programs are primarily available in normal universities, with only a restricted number of comprehensive universities providing geography-related programs. Currently, normal universities still maintain a significant advantage in terms of quantity in the training of pre-service geography teachers. This is a key rationale informing our research into pre-service geography teachers from normal universities.

As one of the required subjects in the National College Entrance Examination (NCEE), Geography holds a unique position as it can connect various disciplines, especially social and environmental factors (Qiu 2017). Soon after the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in October 1949, Chinese higher education institutions made significant adjustments to their subject systems in September 1952. They divided the disciplines into liberal arts and sciences, closely following the Soviet Union model. This restructuring was driven by the nation’s urgent need to select and nurture skilled talents to accelerate national development and meet the growing demands of industrialization (Wei 2008). Geography was categorized as a science major at the university level but considered a liberal arts subject at the secondary school level. Under the this NCEE system, this classification posed challenges for senior secondary school students following the liberal arts track when they later applied for geography-related majors at universities. Additionally, the science students admitted to geography majors in colleges often lacked the necessary basic knowledge of geography, resulting in significant adverse effects on the cultivation of well-qualified geography professionals (McMullen 2011). However, with the reforms of the NCEE system in 2014 (State Council of the People’s Republic of China 2014), the separation between liberal arts and sciences in senior secondary schools was abolished, and geography became an option for all students to choose in the NCEE. This shift has completely changed the enrollment challenges previously delineated by rigid categorization in university geography departments and created new opportunities for the development of the geography profession (Gao et al. 2021), thereby guaranteeing a seamless transition from secondary school to university geography programs. Since the launch of the new NCEE system, two elective examination modes of ‘3 + 3’ and ‘3 + 1 + 2’Footnote 1 have been piloted (Nuer 2022). For example, Shandong Province in Eastern China, which is known for its large number of NCEE candidates and high examination grade boundaries, implemented the new NCEE reform in 2017, leading to geography becoming the subject with the highest number of candidates, accounting for 67.86% of the total (Gao et al. 2021; Guo et al. 2022). Geography is becoming an increasingly significant subject.

Within the context of the domestic Chinese educational framework, graduates majoring in STG should ideally have promising employment prospects. However, due to the expansion of enrollment in ordinary higher education institutions, including normal universities, the number of graduate students has increased rapidly. In 2022, the number of graduate students from ordinary colleges and universities reached a high of 1,103,500 (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China 2023). The discrepancy between the rising number of graduates and the contracting job market is intensifying. Furthermore, while STG graduates may demonstrate a relatively advanced level of pedagogical skills in comparison to their counterparts from comprehensive universities, their knowledge base, capacity for innovation, critical thinking skills, and research abilities substantially lag behind. This situation puts STG graduates at a disadvantage in both the job market and practical teaching. These deficiencies are particularly evident in their master’s degree theses, specifically in the selection of research topics. Whether their thesis topics are conventional or innovative, and whether they offer fresh insights or merely reiterate existing ideas, reflects to a certain extent the graduates’ initial competitiveness in the job market and the potential trajectory of their educational careers.

The objectives of this study were, therefore, to (1) investigate the research capacity and training quality of graduate students in the STG program at normal universities by examining their selected thesis topics; and (2) examine the differences in the training of STG postgraduates in normal universities across different regions and geography subject assessment levels, and explore ways to narrow these gaps. Using the above research objectives, the following research questions were formulated:

What are the research foci and trends in the selection of STG master’s thesis topics at normal universities? Do they reflect the changing nature of the field? Do the research contents of STG master’s theses differ significantly between normal universities in different geographic locations and with divergent subject assessment levels? How can this imbalance be reduced? Are the selected STG master’s thesis topics at normal universities consistent with the concerns and issues faced by in-service secondary school teachers? Does this preparation effectively equip aspiring teachers for their future employment prospects and enable them to adapt to the ever-evolving landscape of educational reforms?

Methodology

Based on the research objectives and questions, and aiming for consistency within the research period (2016–2022), as well as the availability of data, this study selected all 26 normal universities from the 43 universities listed in the fourth round of the national subject assessment conducted by the Ministry of Education for first-level Geography in 2017, with Northeast Normal University as an exception due to the unavailability of data. The fourth round of national subject assessment was launched in 2016 within the scope of 95 first-level subjects, with findings announced in 2017, consistent with the research period covered by this study. In addition, the strength of Geography as a first-level subject also reflects the overall teaching strength of STG in colleges and universities, and can be used as the basis for grading different normal universities. To delve deeper into the spatial disparities between normal universities in the realm of graduates’ cultivation of STG, this study categorized the sampled universities into three regions (Eastern, Central, and Western China) based on their respective levels of economic development, which is widely acknowledged. This categorization aims to illustrate more accurately the spatial heterogeneity of the normal universities, highlighting economic development as a primary determinant over geographical delineations. The geographical distribution of the sampled normal universities is depicted in Fig. 1, with 13 located in Eastern China, 6 in Central China, and 7 in Western China. All the sampled normal universities fall into nine assessment levels: A+, A, A−, B+, B, B−, C+, C, and C−, with the number of universities in each level being 1, 1, 1, 3, 4, 5, 4, 3, and 4 respectively. This article combines the levels of A+, A and A−; B+, B and B−; and C+, C and C− into A, B and C, respectively. The final selection of normal universities with different assessment levels is therefore: 3 in level A; 12 in level B; and 11 in level C. The total sample size of theses was 4510. Of these, 691 were from level A universities, 2727 from level B universities, and 1092 from level C universities. The specific number of theses from each level of university across seven years is shown in Table 1 and Fig. 2.

Fig. 1: Map of Chinese normal universities as sources of research data.
Fig. 1: Map of Chinese normal universities as sources of research data.
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Data from Hunan Normal University and Anhui Normal University were not updated to 2022 due to unavailability. ‘NU’ stands for Normal University.

Table 1 Distribution and sample sizes of STG master’s theses (2016 to 2022).
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Fig. 2
Fig. 2
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Annual sample size of STG master’s theses and their comparative distribution in universities with different subject assessment levels (2016–2022).

After data acquisition, master’s thesis data in the STG field from selected universities were imported into the bibliometric software of CiteSpace and network visualization software of Gephi to construct relevant knowledge maps.Footnote 2 These maps used temporal and hierarchical representations to display the development process and current research foci in the field. Subsequently, separate visual analyses were conducted on universities categorized into the three subject assessment levels. These analyses encompassed keyword clustering and keyword frequency assessments, aiming to delve into variations in research foci within the master’s theses of STG across universities with different subject assessment levels.

Data analysis and results

Overview

In general, the fluctuations in the number of STG master’s theses in recent years are intricately linked to enrollment figures. Nevertheless, variations in the situation are evident on a yearly basis. Based on the data presented in Fig. 2, it is evident that the total number of STG master’s degree theses has shown a significant upward trend, reflecting steady and continuous growth in the number of students pursuing this major. Notably, in 2017, driven by global economic fluctuations and the national demand for applied talents, the enrollment in professional master’s degrees was further expanded, resulting in a significant ‘leapfrog’ growth in the total number of STG theses by 2020. Since then, this growth trend has not slowed, with the number of theses continuing to increase steadily for two consecutive years. Level B universities have become a popular choice for undergraduate students to pursue master’s degree programs due to their stable academic performance, rich educational resources, and relatively sufficient enrollment quotas. The theses from Level B universities account for 60% of the total sample size, significantly influencing the overall trend. Conversely, due to their relatively weak academic competitiveness, the number of students in Level C universities did not grow significantly during the study period, even showing a slight decline in 2022. Although Level A universities are academically excellent, they are constrained by limited enrollment quotas and high admission requirements. Consequently, their STG enrollment, despite increasing after 2017, began to decline gradually after reaching its peak in 2019. In summary, enrollment numbers for universities at different assessment levels are predominantly governed by their affiliating bodies, with limited impact from the hierarchical status of the institutions. Rather, the key factors influencing these numbers are the geographical location of the university and the criteria set for allocation within the college and major. Aspects like faculty capacity, the level of subject development, and societal demands for skilled professionals in specific fields collectively contribute to the formulation of allocation criteria (Li and Zhang 2017).

In addition to the theses count, their keywords constituted the primary dataset for this study. Keywords are a refined expression of thesis research topics and serve as important indicators for bibliometric analysis (Ivancheva 2008). The frequency of their occurrence represents, to a certain extent, the areas of research emphasis within a particular subject domain. In this paper, the keywords of the master’s theses were clustered and analyzed using Gephi visualization software. The resulting keyword co-occurrence and clustering results are displayed in Fig. 3, where larger nodes indicate a higher frequency of occurrence. In Fig. 3, ‘senior secondary geography’ holds the foremost position, followed by keywords ranking from second to tenth, thus: ‘teaching strategy’, ‘geography teaching’, ‘junior secondary geography’, ‘key competency’, ‘teaching design’, ‘senior secondary students’, ‘classroom teaching’, ‘cultivation strategy’ and ‘curriculum criteria’. The ranking of keywords offers a comprehensive snapshot of the prevalent themes and priorities present in the master’s theses. It is apparent that STG research has predominantly concentrated on secondary education, specifically emphasizing the senior secondary school level. Certainly, the senior secondary school stage represents a crucial phase in the cognitive and behavioral development of adolescents, during which their abilities and characteristics begin to take shape and consolidate (Buckler 2012), thereby attracting significant research interest. Another contributing factor to the higher proportion of research focused on the senior secondary school level might be the configuration of the Geography curriculum in Chinese secondary schools, as well as the employment preferences of graduates in the STG programs towards working as senior secondary geography teachers. For example, in the Curriculum Standards 2022(Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China 2022b), the share of teaching hours allocated to Geography in compulsory education, which encompasses education from elementary schools to junior secondary schools but does not include senior secondary schools, ranges from 3% to 4%. This allocation, circumscribed within the confines of limited teaching hours, poses challenges to the in-depth exploration of diverse topics in junior secondary geography. Ultimately, master’s degree theses in STG are based on the geography teaching process, including exploration into teaching design and the optimization of teaching strategies, see Module 1 in Fig. 3 (in yellow). The second important category of research foci on geographic key competency and its development pathways is shown in Module 2 in Fig. 3 (in red). Since the issue of the General Secondary School Geography Curriculum Standards (2017 Edition) (hereinafter referred to as the New Standards (2017)’) (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China 2018), the geography curriculum objectives have been upgraded from the Three-Dimensional Objectives of knowledge and skills, process and methods, and affective attitudes and values, to the Four Geographical Key Competencies. Accordingly, research into specific geographic key competencies such as ‘geographical praxis’ and ‘regional cognition’ has rapidly increased and become the focus of STG students’ theses. Module 3 focuses on specific classroom teaching, which is the main approach to implementing educational delivery in schools. Its content principally includes classroom teaching and learning methodologies, such as ‘flipped classrooms’ and ‘micro-lectures’, and learning methods, such as ‘mind map’, ‘self-directed learning’, and ‘project-based learning.’ At the same time, it also includes research into the main learning resource, namely textbooks, see Fig. 3 (in sapphire). The Module 4 topics are relatively dispersed, reflecting emerging research subjects in Geography, for instance, ‘study tours.’ In addition, research in this category pays great attention to the development and application of curricular resources, such as ‘vernacular geography curricular resources’ and ‘school-based curriculum’, see Fig. 3 (in violet). Nonetheless, the aforementioned keywords primarily emanate from the standpoint of educators and researchers, overlooking an exploration of students’ intrinsic motivations and their developmental attributes. This omission restricts the exploration of the discipline’s evolution as driven by the ‘student-centered’ principle, which is an educational philosophy widely embraced and advocated in secondary school teaching practices and emphasizes an approach that revolves around the individual learner’s needs, interests, and growth.

Fig. 3
Fig. 3
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STG master’s theses sample keyword cluster map (2016–2022).

Evolution of research foci

In order to examine comprehensively the evolution of research foci within STG master’s theses over time, this study meticulously utilized CiteSpace software (Chen, 2016) after consolidating semantically related keywords through synonym and near-synonym merging. For instance, the practice involved merging terms like ‘regional cognition’ and ‘regional cognitive competency’ into a unified entity denoted as ‘regional cognition.’Footnote 3 The top ten keywords in terms of frequency for each year are illustrated in Fig. 4. The total percentage of the top ten keywords in each year could be taken to reflect the degree of concentration of research themes in that particular year. A higher total sum proportion indicates more concentrated master’s thesis research foci, whereas a lower total sum proportion indicates more diversified research foci and themes. Analyzing the overall trend of the proportions occupied by the top ten keywords from 2016 to 2022 reveals a gradual concentration of research themes within master’s theses in the STG. From 2016 to 2022, ‘senior secondary geography’ emerged as the predominant keyword, with its proportion steadily increasing year by year, depicted by the thickest segments in a dark magenta hue in Fig. 4. Concurrently, ‘junior secondary geography’ also emerged as a significant area of research interest, albeit with slight fluctuations in its annual ranking. This observation underscores the coherent and systematic nature of geographical education at the secondary school level. It is evident that there have been substantial annual shifts in research priorities during this period. In the early years, notably around 2016, relatively traditional contents such as ‘teaching modes’ remained the focus of research, though these waned in subsequent years. Emerging themes such as ‘curriculum standards’ gained prominence, entering the top ten high-frequency keywords in 2017 and maintaining a significant presence in subsequent years. Since 2018, ‘key competency’ has occupied a prominent position in STG theses, ranking second in the list of research topics for four consecutive years, before dropping to fifth place in 2022. Also, since 2018, the top ten high-frequency keywords have included the terms ‘geographical praxis’, ‘regional cognition’, and ‘holistic thinking’, indicating deepening research into this area. This trend reflects evolving educational philosophies and the imperative for curriculum reform. However, certain seminal inquiries continue to persist within the STG theses. Notably, a significant focus has remained on geographical pedagogy, demonstrating enduring vitality. Commencing in 2016, keywords such as ‘geography teaching’, ‘teaching strategy,’ ‘teaching design’ and ‘classroom teaching’ dominated discussion, extending through the whole research period, with the addition of ‘cultivation strategy’ in 2018 and ‘teaching practice’ in 2021. These keywords unequivocally highlight the sustained trajectory of pedagogically grounded investigations. Similarly, ‘senior secondary students’ emerged as a noteworthy keyword in 2017, and experienced a resurgence in 2019, reflecting a discernible shift towards student-centered research endeavors.

Fig. 4
Fig. 4
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Stacked histogram of the top 10 keywords in the STG master’s thesis samples (2016–2022).

Burst keyword monitoring is the process of identifying keywords that exhibit a sudden increase in their relative growth rate. This approach is utilized to identify potential seminal topics within a subject area, which can then be employed to analyze the research status and emerging trends of STG master’s theses (Chen 2006). Table 2 presents the burst keywords that experienced a surge in prominence within the scope of this study. It elucidates a discernible transition in scholarly attention from long-standing classic themes such as ‘geography curriculum’ and ‘quality-oriented education’ towards emergent themes such as ‘curriculum reform’ during 2016 and 2017. This shift is attributable to the anticipatory discourse surrounding the introduction of the New Standards (2017) and the progressive evolution of curriculum reform initiatives. During 2016–2018, there was a noticeable increase in scholarly focus on student-centered topics such as ‘flipped classroom’, ‘ability development’, and ‘teaching reform.’ This shift underscores the growing prominence of student-centric educational paradigms amidst the ongoing deepening of curriculum reform. Subsequently, from 2019 to 2022, ‘evaluation system’, ‘study tours’ and ‘sense of patriotism’ have emerged as newly prominent research foci. This trend reflects two key progressive inclinations. First, in an era characterized by a comprehensive promotion of quality-oriented education, teaching has expanded beyond the confines of the classroom and is increasingly integrated into daily life. This approach is aimed at fostering initiative and developing well-rounded qualities in students. Second, it demonstrates an enhanced capacity of Geography to address moral issues and to cultivate talent, with a growing emphasis on the promotion and cultivation of the Chinese national spirit.

Table 2 Burst keywords in STG master’s theses (2016–2022).
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In sum, after coupling the findings presented in Table 2 and Fig. 4, it becomes apparent that the research foci of master’s theses within the STG field exhibit a propensity to move beyond conventional paradigms and embrace novel approaches. In addition, student-centered and more political and ethnic-implicated research has successively been incorporated into this evolving research trajectory, gaining increasing popularity in line with contemporary advances.

Hierarchical heterogeneity

The foci of master’s theses within the STG programme not only manifest characteristics appertaining to temporal evolution but also exhibit discernible disparities in terms of hierarchical attributes. The development of diverse subjects in universities with different assessment levels is influenced by their unique geographical locations and substantial disparities in regional economic advancement. To summarize the research characteristics of universities with different subject assessment levels, this study performed keyword cluster analysis of STG master’s theses in A, B, and C level universities, respectively, as shown in Fig. 5. Due to the high similarity of high-frequency keywords at different assessment levels, the top ten keywords from the frequency rankings were removed to highlight the differences more clearly. The clustering results were analyzed based on these pre-processed data. Each cluster is composed of multiple closely related words. The more keywords the cluster contains, the smaller the serial number represented by the cluster label.

Fig. 5: Keywords clustering diagram by levels.
Fig. 5: Keywords clustering diagram by levels.
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Cluster diagram of keywords in STG master’s theses across universities with different subject assessment levels [(a) Level A; (b) Level B; (c) Level C].

Level A universities exhibit nine distinct clusters, as shown in Fig. 5a. These universities generally excel in research within the fields of Geography and Geography Education, focusing significantly on core issues. These issues include in-depth analyses of ‘human-environment relationships’, diverse studies of ‘regional geography’, and the innovation and optimization of secondary school geography textbooks, particularly the application of ‘maps’ in geographical instruction. For instance, using current secondary school students’ cognitive maps, master’s degree candidates adhere to these cognitive patterns, employing a staged approach to construct pictorial reading activities, and devise corresponding pedagogical strategies to enhance the learning effectiveness of students (Cha 2019). Furthermore, Level A universities actively explore emerging research topics. For example, research into ‘study tours’ has gained significant traction since the Ministry of Education formally integrated them into the primary and secondary school curricula in 2016. The rapid emergence of study tours as a focal point of research among leading normal universities underscores their advantages in launching and implementing such initiatives, thereby prompting in-depth analysis and research at an early stage.

Level B universities are primarily clustered into ten categories, see Fig. 5b. Compared to Level A universities, Level B universities demonstrate greater diversification in their research fields, leveraging extensive data resources. Their research spans various specific teaching and learning methods in education, including ‘teaching modes’, ‘unit teaching’, ‘optimization strategy’, the development and implementation of ‘evaluation system’, and ‘learning progression’ approaches. These studies are comprehensive, extending to geographical educational research in elementary schools—a niche area seldom explored by institutions at other levels. This breadth and depth highlights the comprehensiveness and rigor of Level B universities, showcasing their unique insights and strong capabilities in geographical education.

Conversely, Level C universities demonstrate ten primary clusters see Fig. 5c. Level C universities exhibit some thematic overlap with Level A and B universities in classical research areas. However, they also place significant emphasis on exploring effective strategies to enhance student learning. These strategies include an in-depth consideration of teachers’ professional development, the innovative application of geographical experiments in secondary school education, and the comprehensive development and implementation of school-based curriculum. The research objectives of these STG master’s theses in Level C universities focus on optimizing students’ learning experiences and growth.

Obviously, universities with different subject assessment levels exhibit distinctive characteristics in educational research. Specifically, research in STG theses at Level A universities tends to emphasize international and global strategic perspectives. These universities focus on the impacts of global environmental and policy changes on education, such as global warming, national security issues, and gender differences in geographical teaching and learning, and they often pursue novel and cutting-edge research topics. For instance, an STG thesis from a Level A university used Winsteps software to analyze results from the 18th National Geography Olympiad, exploring the competition’s role in developing students’ advanced thinking skills and its broader impact on students’ overall competency. In contrast, Level C universities’ studies are more rooted in local culture, emphasizing close integration with local traditions and displaying vernacular research characteristics. Examples include leveraging research on new textbooks, amalgamating local geography course resources, and employing methodologies such as inquiry-based learning. In one such instance, a structured plan for fieldwork-oriented vernacular geography practical activities, specifically in the form of hiking, is devised (Yang 2020). Additionally, graduates of the STG program have analyzed the current status and dilemmas of rural geography teachers, aiming to explore pathways for their professional growth in rural secondary school geography education (Wu 2017). These characteristics are closely linked to the geographic distribution and disciplinary strengths of each level of university, significantly reflecting the variability in disciplinary development and the unique research focus of each institution.

In addition to clustering, high-frequency keywords are an important way to analyze disparities in research at different tiers of normal universities. Price’s Formula, derived from Price’s Law, is widely employed within bibliometric practice (Price 1963). It serves as a methodological tool for quantifying the essential constituents of academic literature, as expressed by the following equation (Qiu 2007):

$$M=0.749\sqrt{{N}_{\max }}$$
(1)

\({\rm{where}}\,{M}\) represents the minimum frequency of high-frequency keywords and \({N}_{\max }\) is the maximum value of the frequency of keywords. Keywords boasting a frequency equal to or surpassing \(M\) are classified as high-frequency keywords. Abiding by this established criterion in this study, a keyword frequency exceeding 32.57 is considered as a high-frequency keyword. The meticulous selection process revealed 7 high-frequency keywords in Level A universities, 32 high-frequency keywords in Level B universities, and 18 high-frequency keywords in Level C universities. The identified high-frequency keywords are listed in Table 3, where keywords expressing similar meanings have been merged. According to Table 3, research priorities across all three levels of universities exhibit a notable degree of concentration. High-frequency keywords such as ‘senior secondary geography’, ‘teaching strategy’ and ‘key competency’ consistently stand out among them. Nevertheless, subtle variations persist among the high-frequency keywords associated with each level of university.

Table 3 High-frequency keywords in Level C, B, and A universities.
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The research conducted by STG graduates from Level C universities into geography education remains in its nascent stages, predominantly focusing on traditional areas such as ‘teaching modes’ and ‘teaching design.’ This observation suggests, to a certain extent, a relative lack of innovation in the research topics pursued within Level C universities. In contrast, and benefiting from a larger sample size, graduates from Level B universities are able to encompass more detailed and diverse research content. Their studies not only cover nearly all the high-frequency keywords of Level A universities but also extend to various other aspects such as ‘study tours’, ‘vernacular geography’, and ‘curriculum reform.’ Furthermore, research into ‘geographical key competency’ and its four core components is notably thorough in Level B universities. Due to the limited sample size, however, there are fewer high-frequency keywords selected from Level A universities; these keywords principally include classic foci of geographical education such as ‘teaching strategy.’

Based on the results of keyword clustering and analysis of high-frequency keywords, it is evident that terms such as ‘senior secondary geography’, ‘key competency’ and ‘teaching strategy’ rank highly across all three levels of universities. This would indicate that graduates of the STG program from these universities focus their research on the senior secondary school level, with nuanced differences in specific directions. An examination of the high-frequency keywords from Level C universities highlights predominantly traditional teaching methods, signifying a relative dearth in originality. Level B universities tend to foster a coexistence of tradition and pluralism in their research topics. They not only conduct in-depth research into classic teaching models, but also show excellent research strength in emerging fields. Level A universities concentrate on the geographical teaching context of students throughout the entire secondary school stage, emphasizing the exploration of teaching practices and strategies to guide classroom activities more accurately and significantly enhance teaching quality.

Spatial heterogeneity

Analysis of the hierarchical heterogeneity in the STG theses has also revealed the influence of universities’ geographical locations on the directions and themes of geography education. To explore further the spatial variations in STG theses, three major regional divisions based on economic factors were identified to examine the impact of location on these studies (see Fig. 1).

Following the regional categorization of universities, keyword cluster analysis was conducted in the same way as described in the section on hierarchical heterogeneity (see Fig. 6). Notably, universities in the eastern region demonstrate a pioneering role in educational innovation, staying abreast of contemporary issues and trends, see Fig. 6a. Due to the sample size, there is a diversification in research topics in the eastern region and a significant increase in attention to teaching details. These details, including the interpretation of ‘geographical concepts’, the design of ‘geographical experiments’ and ‘introductory teaching plans’, and the utilization of ‘micro-lectures’, form the basis of a comprehensive geography classroom framework. Additionally, the study emphasizes enhancing students’ overall quality, particularly deepening geographical competency and cultivating their ability to progress in learning, thereby promoting their all-round development.

Fig. 6: Keywords clustering diagram by location.
Fig. 6: Keywords clustering diagram by location.
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Cluster diagram of keywords in STG master’s theses for Eastern, Central, and Western China [(a) Eastern China; (b) Central China; (c) Western China].

Central China, by virtue of its location, has effectively integrated research foci from both Eastern and Western China. For example, when top-tier universities in Eastern China lead in exploring cutting-edge topics such as ‘study tours’, universities in Central China quickly respond by incorporating these topics into their research scope. They also look abroad, actively exploring the implementation of STEM education in the United States at the textbook level and analyzing the in-depth structural logic of textbooks. This approach provides a model for integrating STEM education into China’s secondary education (Han 2019). Additionally, the STG theses from universities in Central China align with those from Western China counterparts in their focus on ‘teaching practice.’ Furthermore, research in Central China emphasizes traditional areas, including the construction of evaluation systems, the cultivation of thinking skills, and the detailed study of geographical teaching materials, reflecting the comprehensiveness and depth of their STG research.

In contrast, research in Western China’s universities has focused significantly more on specific classroom practices, including the development of curricular resources, educational trends triggered by curriculum reform, and the professional growth of teachers. Notably, these studies provide in-depth insights and detailed analyses of education at the grassroots level. For instance, studies into secondary school students cover a broad scope, encompassing different regions and types of student groups, such as art students (Zhao 2018), rather than just ordinary secondary school students. They also explore the diversity of students in less-developed regions, ethnic minority students, and students in provincial capital cities. By considering the individual characteristics of students and the influences of their environments and family backgrounds, these studies effectively promote personalized student development.

Through an in-depth analysis of the cluster results for universities in the eastern, central, and western regions of China, a correlation was made between the geographic location of these universities and their respective subject assessment levels. Specifically, Level A universities are predominantly located in the east, whereas Level C universities are mainly found in the west. This would suggest a certain overlap between the spatial heterogeneity of these regions and their hierarchical differences. However, there are also notable differences in key research areas among STG theses from normal universities in different regions. For instance, marine research is primarily concentrated in the eastern region, while research into ethnicity is more prevalent in the western region. The detailed distribution is shown in Table 4.

Table 4 Distribution of keywords with significant geographical characteristics.
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Among the ocean-related research in STG theses, the eastern region accounts for 86.7% of the studies. It is evident that normal universities in the eastern coastal region align their research with the geographic realities to enhance the ocean themes in secondary school geography curricula. This research primarily focuses on cultivating students’ ocean awareness, including ocean security and sovereignty awareness (Gao 2021). Furthermore, the eastern region has ventured into less-explored research domains compared to the other two regions, such as examining gender differences in senior secondary school students’ geographical abilities, with reference to learning transfer abilities (Wu 2019), spatial thinking abilities and map reading abilities. This emphasis on understanding gender disparities and fostering an equitable geographical teaching environment through novel research perspectives is relatively uncommon in other regions.

Regarding the special topic of ethnicity, the western region has a significant number of ethnic minority populations due to its remote geographic location. Consequently, the integration of teaching resources and the exploration of ethnic cultural differences in those areas has, and will, become increasingly in-depth. There is a particular emphasis on developing curricular resources for rural geography in minority areas. For instance, endeavors have been made to explore and integrate cultural resources of ethnic minorities, design teaching cases, and propose guiding principles for the development of rural geography curricular resources in senior secondary schools situated in ethnic minority areas or autonomous regions (Yu, 2019). Overall, owing to its distinctive geographical context, relatively slower economic development, and the prevalence of diverse ethnic groups, STG graduate theses in the western region place a greater emphasis on localization.

Conversely, research themes in the central region of China tend to be more traditional, primarily concentrating on case design; the total number of theses concentrating on such areas was significantly higher than in the eastern and western regions. Case design involves selecting and organizing teaching content, methods, and strategies to create specific teaching scenarios or stories, enabling students to learn and apply knowledge in simulated or real environments. In Central China, case design incorporates a broader range of materials, which may include specific textbooks, focused on particular secondary schools as research obejct, or meticulously constructed around distinct learning styles, technological tools, or the development of specific key competency (Luo 2021). Overall, subtle differences in the research areas of various regions would indicate that the geographic distribution of universities can influence the choice of STG research topics, at least to some extent.

Geography education research foci and differences

Research foci

Insights into the research trends within master’s theses in the STG program were garnered by analyzing their hierarchical and spatiotemporal dimensions. However, these findings may not entirely encapsulate any cutting-edge Geography Education research. Consequently, the next phase of this study involves an examination and synthesis of the areas now at the forefront of geographical pedagogical research, aiming to explore pathways designed to enhance the competence of STG master’s students and the quality of secondary school geography teaching.

In recent years, the development of geography education in China has become progressively internationalized. Attention to international research foci and cutting-edge advancements in Geography Education is conducive to comprehending the dynamic geographical education landscape in China. Domestic and international research foci from pertinent sources are presented in Table 5 (Buhl-Wiggers et al. 2023; Liang and He 2020; McDaniel 2022; Sekhon et al. 2021; Svobodová et al. 2020; Zhu et al. 2020).

Table 5 Domestic and international research foci in Geography Education.
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To begin with, international Geography Education is attuned to the personalized needs of students, propelling a gradual transformation in geographical teaching methods. For instance, American geographers adeptly employ inquiry-based instructional approaches, fashioning problem scenarios related to climatic dynamics, and adopting collaborative group methodologies to enhance students’ self-directed learning capacities (Sekhon et al. 2021). Additionally, in the Czech Republic, outdoor education has been more deeply explored (Svobodová et al. 2020). As a supplementary method to conventional geography classroom instruction, outdoor-based teaching not only broadens the content of teaching but also increases its practical applicability. This phenomenon exhibits parallels with the domestic ‘study tours’ pedagogical model, offering a fertile milieu and ample space for the cultivation of ‘geographical praxis.’ Finally, there is an advocacy for the adoption of blended teaching methodologies, fostering innovation in geographical pedagogical techniques (Buhl-Wiggers et al. 2023). Since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, experiential learning through real-world interactions has been disrupted, and online education has become a significant medium. The online and offline integration of ‘virtual simulation experiments’, which construct a highly simulated virtual experimental environment and operation process to complement field observations and real experiments, has emerged as a new paradigm able to enrich the teaching system (McDaniel 2022).

At the forefront of domestic geographical education research, three major Chinese journals, namely Education of Geography, Geography Teaching, and Teaching Reference of Middle School Geography, collectively referred to as the ‘Three Journals’ of geography education, hold authoritative stature and significant timeliness. They also serve as platforms for reflecting the research calibre of professionals within the geographical education field. Therefore, this study garner, synthesizes and summarizes the ensuing domestic frontline geographical education research foci and trends from these esteemed publications over the same time span.

First, it is clear that ‘key competency’ has assumed a central role in Geography Education. Ever since the introduction of the New Standards (2017), which delineated four key competencies including human-environment relationships, holistic thinking, regional cognition, and geographical praxis, the study of ‘key competency’ has progressively gained prominence (Liao and Zhu 2021). Second, notable research has been conducted into new teaching materials, particularly those published by the People’s Education Press. For example, a comparative study was conducted between the new version of the senior secondary school geography textbooks published by the People’s Education Press and Sinomaps Press to explore the differences in content selection and arrangement (Liang and He 2020). Third, information technology has facilitated reform in geography classrooms, propelling a renewal of teaching methods. For example, researchers have facilitated the construction and use of digital resources and diverse interactive modalities in the classroom through the development of the ‘Geography Cloud Classroom’ online course. This course is able to make full use of the scientific nature of ‘online teaching’ to develop geographical micro-lectures, thereby realizing its educational objectives (Li and Li 2022).

Differences

The research conducted in STG master’s theses is generally up to date. Nonetheless, this research still lags behind the frontiers of international and domestic academic research in terms of research depth and breadth. This can be attributed to the fact that the authors of international and domestic journal papers are mainly scholars and experts who have an advantage over graduate students in the STG program in terms of academic writing experience. The authors of the Chinese ‘Three Journals’ are primarily frontline teachers in secondary schools, along with some teachers from colleges and universities, and postgraduates. University teachers and frontline teachers in secondary schools are more closely involved in the practice of geography education, allowing them to obtain more timely feedback and in-depth cognitive thinking, which is then reflected in their research. Moreover, the research contents of master’s theses in STG are usually relatively microscopic, while domestic and international journal papers tend to be more macroscopic and holistic. Most of the research contents in master’s theses focus on improving and optimizing a particular teaching strategy or method. They attach great importance to practical application and their research scopes are thus mostly based on a certain school or several schools. In contrast, journal papers often explore the development of the entire discipline of geographical education and are more contemporary in nature.

These STG graduate students are ultimately destined for teaching positions, and the disparities in their perspectives and understanding formed during their student years may potentially impede their future innovation and progress in their professional roles. Addressing this phenomenon consequently becomes an urgent necessity. For instance, providing them with more opportunities for learning and communication, and enhancing the quality of their teaching practices, can significantly contribute to their professional growth and success, helping them become accomplished educators. Only through these measures can they become more competitive than students from comprehensive universities in their professional work, exhibiting greater potential and creativity throughout their long teaching careers.

Discussion

This paper examines the topics selected for STG master’s theses at normal universities in China from a hierarchical and spatiotemporal perspective. The research findings aim to enhance the comprehension of the research capabilities of current Chinese graduate students in the STG program, thereby contributing to the overall improvement of the quality of basic education. Additionally, the study explores approaches to narrowing the gap between institutions by comparing the disparities in the quality of STG postgraduates’ theses among normal universities situated in different geographical regions and evaluated with varying subject assessment levels. Supported by a quantitative analysis of literature and utilizing methods such as keyword clustering analysis, the study has yielded the following results.

During the period from 2016 to 2022, STG master’s theses in Chinese normal universities have consistently focused on enduring research themes in geographical education, such as ‘teaching strategy’ and ‘cultivation strategy.’ Of these theses, the most common research was into teaching models and methods that can be used to promote the development of geographical education at the senior secondary level. Furthermore, the graduates’ work often exhibited an augmented emphasis on scrutinizing the assessment of key competencies, thereby underscoring the pivotal role of NCEE in guiding the actualization of these foundational proficiencies. This is related to the reform of the New Standards (2017) and the revision of senior secondary school geography textbooks. However, there have been no significant changes at the junior secondary school level during this period. The distinctive research content of theses from universities at different levels encompasses a wide range of topics, including theoretical frameworks, textbook analysis, and practical research, all of which exemplify the key competencies in geographical education. This diversity in research content underscores the multidimensional nature of geographical education and highlights the various aspects that can contribute to the development of key competencies among students.

Overall, there is a significant variation in the research contents of STG master’s theses between universities in different regions and with divergent subject assessment levels. Universities in developed regions and those with higher subject assessment levels tend to produce research-oriented theses that closely align with the concerns of in-service teachers, demonstrating a greater academic value and depth. Furthermore, the topics selected for STG master’s theses often tend to be narrowly ranged and less innovative when compared to the research foci and cutting-edge issues characterized in international and domestic academic journals, as well as the practical problems and phenomena that concern geography educators in secondary schools. Collectively, the choice of topics appears to lag behind current trends. To address disparities in teaching outcomes among different regions and universities as well as other aforementioned issues, this paper puts forward recommendations to form a three-pronged collaborative mechanism.

First, it is essential to strengthen the cooperative mechanism involving the off-campus tutor in the training of postgraduates specializing in the STG program. To leverage fully the frontline teaching experience of off-campus tutors, it is necessary to establish a bridge between their understanding of secondary school classroom teaching and the research capabilities of postgraduates. This approach will creatively guide postgraduates in selecting their thesis topic. To achieve ‘theory-guided practice’, master’s theses need to explore the theoretical aspect of the discipline more deeply and to integrate any practical aspects. In order to do so effectively, it is crucial to gain firsthand experience in frontline teaching. Innovative models and mechanisms have been explored in the involvement of off-campus tutors. For instance, Beijing Normal University (Level A+) has implemented a ‘Three-Member Tutors’ team strategy, comprising the main supervisor, deputy supervisor, and an external supervisor, working collaboratively to guide postgraduates. This approach contributes to improving graduates’ academic performance and fosters their comprehensive abilities in interdisciplinary studies, practical problem-solving, and skills to establish extensive academic connections. Similarly, East China Normal University (Level A) has created a ‘Supervisor Workshop’ system, enhancing the cohesion and professionalism of the supervisor team through thematic discussions and free seminars (Zhang and Liu 2017). It is therefore essential for the STG master’s program to comprehensively strengthen cooperation with off-campus tutors (Zhang 2019).

Second, the active involvement of university teachers in secondary school geography classrooms and their in-depth understanding of frontline geography teaching can significantly enhance their guidance of postgraduates. Close cooperation between universities and secondary schools will facilitate a seamless connection between the higher and basic education sectors. Amidst rapid societal change, students in secondary schools can at different stages exhibit significant psychological and behavioral changes. If university teachers adhere to outdated methods and fail to promptly grasp this evolution in both secondary school students and postgraduates, it would be challenging to guide and educate them effectively. According to the outstanding Master of Education (M.Ed.) theses selected by The National Supervisory Committee for Professional Degrees in Education, the ideal supervisor for M.Ed. students should have at least three to five years of frontline teaching experience on top of their curricular and pedagogical expertize. The M.Ed. postgraduates directed by such supervisors possess distinct characteristics, including a deeper concern for the progress of geographical education reform in secondary schools, a solid foundation in educational and teaching skills, and a diversification of thesis topics. Consequently, educators possessing experience in secondary school teaching are more proficient at offering valuable guidance, as they are able to integrate the current learning and developmental context of students in contemporary secondary schools with research and curricular mentoring. This approach not only establishes a high-quality learning platform for postgraduates but also ensures that they stay abreast of the latest developments in geography teaching in secondary schools, facilitating a seamless transition from graduation to the frontline of teaching.

Furthermore, it is crucial to strengthen exchanges and cooperation between universities, leveraging each other’s strengths, and bridging the developmental gap between them. Through mutual learning and progress, balanced development and comprehensive improvement can be achieved. For example, some colleges and universities in economically challenged regions have been constrained by their existing developmental paths and unchanging educational approaches for many years. Additionally, they face limitations in terms of faculty, infrastructure, and funding, making it painful for them to achieve rapid progress in graduate programs on their own. By establishing a joint educational teaching practice mechanism for STG postgraduates across different levels of universities, promoting teaching practice exchanges among pre-service geography teachers from various institutions, and further sharing educational resources, postgraduates can gain more comprehensive and extensive learning opportunities. Hence, implementing a mutual support mechanism between universities in developed regions and those in underdeveloped areas, through means such as the establishment of virtual teaching and research laboratories, can enable the sharing of teaching resources and faculty strengths. While universities in developed regions might already possess a privileged position in terms of educational resources and reputation, collaboration can further amplify their societal impact, attracting higher-quality graduates to form a reservoir of doctoral candidates. This also empowers them to assume significant responsibilities and play a pivotal role in the nationwide advancement of geographical disciplines.

Conclusion

STG master’s degree theses represent the culmination of graduates’ academic journeys. The quality of these theses directly mirrors the effectiveness of the training provided by diverse graduate programs at different universities. It not only demonstrates the guidance level of supervisors but also reflects the research capabilities of the graduate students and their practical grasp of frontline teaching skills. The quality of the master’s theses is thus one of the essential indicators determining the training quality of graduate students as pre-service teachers.

This study highlights several key findings. First, the research foci of STG master’s theses encompass both classic topics in geographical educational research and emerging themes stemming from curriculum reforms, demonstrating a certain response to change. This to some extent reflects developments in the discipline of Geography and geographical education. Second, distinct variations in research topics exist between universities in different geographical locations and with divergent subject assessment levels. To mitigate this imbalance, recommendations are proposed in this paper, including the partnership between off-campus and on-campus tutors as well as mechanisms for collaboration between universities and secondary schools. Additionally, disparities are evident between master’s theses from normal universities and the concerns of frontline educators, indicating a lag in the research contents of these theses. However, due to intensified competition in the education sector, greater emphasis is placed on the competency of graduates, especially in terms of research skills. There is therefore a need to enhance graduates’ proficiency in this regard, enabling them to adapt better to future careers in teaching and academia.

It is essential to acknowledge that there are some limitations to this study, primarily those attributed to the relatively short timescale of the selected data. Additionally, in the process of analyzing the master’s degree theses, the focus was on using ‘keywords’ to highlight the differences in current research topics in Geography Education across various levels of normal universities. This approach overlooks other important elements of the master’s theses, such as the abstract and full text, making the conclusion less persuasive.

Two further research goals therefore need to be addressed in the future. First, expanding the research timescale will enable a more comprehensive presentation of changing trends in STG master’s degree theses. Second, it is necessary to garner more data for analysis, for instance, by incorporating qualitative analysis of relevant textual data from external experts’ thesis reviews (Liu and Ma 2023). Additionally, there is a need to review international geographical education research more closely, especially in the area of pre-service teacher education. Lastly, enhancing the qualitative in-depth analysis of individual universities will offer a more detailed examination of their contributions to the STG educational landscape.

The rapid development of AI technology is exerting a profound and significant impact on all aspects of human society, and education is no exception. In the Geography Education field, the journal Geography Teaching was the first of the ‘Three Journals’ to establish a column dedicated to AI, starting with its fifth issue in 2024 (Fu et al. 2024). This initiative aims to explore the potential AI application scenarios in secondary school geography classrooms and assess its impact. Current research in this area predominantly examines AI’s role in various aspects of secondary school geography teaching. This includes assisting teachers with instructional design and the creation of contextual problem chains (Hou and Hu 2024). It is reasonable to anticipate that ongoing research and updated data will result in STG master’s theses focusing on related issues and advances. By addressing these aspects in subsequent research, it may be possible to gain a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the dynamics and factors that influence the quality of master’s degree theses in the field of STG graduate education. This will be instrumental in devising strategies to enhance the provision of geographical education not only in China but also in other countries.