Introduction and literature review

Education plays a crucial role in preparing students for the challenges and opportunities of the 21st century (González-Pérez and Ramírez-Montoya 2022; Tindowen et al. 2017). As the world evolves with rapid technological advancements, globalization, and complex societal changes, the skills needed to thrive in this environment have shifted significantly. Researchers have emphasized that educational institutions must focus not just on imparting basic knowledge, but also on ensuring students gain skills and abilities essential for personal and professional success in an increasingly complex and dynamic world (González-Salamanca et al. 2020; Niu et al. 2021; Tindowen et al. 2017). This involves a paradigm shift from traditional, teacher-centered approaches to a more dynamic, learner-centered model that emphasizes students’ active construction of knowledge and understanding (Stehle and Peters-Burton 2019). Therefore, educational institutions and authorities should prioritize the development of essential ‘21st century skills’ in students, which encompass the knowledge and traits needed to thrive in the modern workforce and global economy. These skills aim to move away from traditional content-based memorization and drilling towards nurturing advanced skills such as critical thinking, creativity, and open-ended problem-solving (Bao, and Koenig 2019). By integrating these skills into educational practices and curricula, educators can equip students with the tools they need to thrive personally, professionally, and socially.

Many organizations, including United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the Partnership for 21st Century Skills, and the Assessment and Teaching of 21st Century Skills, as well as researchers (e.g., Trilling and Fadel 2009; Voogt et al. 2013; Wilcox et al. 2017), have created frameworks that outline the crucial skills needed by children, students, and adults in the workforce and daily life of the 21st century. These skills, collectively known as 21st century skills, encompass cognitive abilities like creativity and innovation, critical thinking, collaboration, communication, problem-solving, and reasoning (Bao and Koenig 2019; Thornhill-Miller et al. 2023; Voogt et al. 2013). The Partnership for 21st Century Skills, a prominent advocacy organization dedicated to integrating 21st century skills into education, has created a comprehensive framework for 21st century learning. This framework consists of three key skill domains: (i) learning and innovation skills, (ii) career and life skills, and (iii) information, technology, and media skills (The Partnership for 21st Century Learning 2007).

According to the Partnership for 21st Century Learning (2007), each of the three primary categories is essential for individuals to develop and acquire specific skills. For instance, the Life and Career domain emphasizes the need for adaptability, flexibility, social awareness, self-direction, responsibility, and accountability. Learning and Innovation, on the other hand, focus on fostering creativity, innovation, collaboration, critical thinking, communication, and problem-solving abilities. Information, Technology, and Media skills entail proficient use and access to information, the ability to analyze and create media products, and efficient technology use. Integrating these elements into instruction, curriculum, and assessment enables teachers and schools to create learning environments conducive to developing the vital capabilities required in the 21st century (Fandiño 2013; Fitriati et al. 2024; Saimon et al. 2023; Trilling and Fadel 2009).

This research study focuses on the “4 Cs” of the learning and innovation skills domain: creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, and communication. Creativity skills are defined as the students’ ability to produce and refine solutions to complex tasks or problems through analysis and synthesis, and then present or integrate what they have learned in original and innovative ways. Critical thinking skills are described as the students’ capacity to analyze complex problems, evaluate various sources of information or perspectives, investigate questions without clear-cut answers, and draw suitable conclusions based on reasoning and evidence. Collaboration skills are characterized as the students’ ability to work together to address questions or solve problems and to do so respectfully and effectively in groups to achieve a common goal. Communication skills are defined as the students’ capability to organize their thoughts, findings, and data, and convey them verbally in an effective manner (Hixson et al. 2012; Ravitz et al. 2012; Tindowen et al. 2017; Wilcox et al. 2017).

While there is a global push to integrate 21st century skills into classrooms, numerous challenges continue to hinder their effective implementations (Tangney et al. 2023). A review by Bullard and Bahar (2023) identified key barriers that hinder fostering creativity in education, including low teacher self-efficacy, restrictive teaching environments, and outdated training methods. Similarly, Fitriati (2024) found that prospective teachers in Indonesia were not adequately prepared to teach 21st century skills due to limited institutional knowledge, insufficient resources, and a lack of support. In Tanzania, Saimon (2023) reported that large class sizes, poor technological infrastructure, and inadequate facilities posed significant obstacles. Comparable challenges were noted by Niu et al. (2021) in Finland, where student teachers cited time constraints, limited resources, minimal support from teacher educators, and ineffective teaching approaches as impediments to acquire 21st century competencies.

Most countries invest a significant amount of effort into education, expecting that this investment will contribute to their economic sustainability and well-being (Chalkiadaki 2018; Tindowen et al. 2017). Thornhill-Miller et al. (2023) argue that educational authorities must urgently enhance student learning and skill development to address today’s ongoing global challenges. However, despite the global consensus on the necessity for skills such as critical thinking and effective communication, pedagogy has not evolved to meet these new challenges (Kim et al. 2019). The traditional lecture method and the ‘transmission’ of information remain the dominant instructional approaches in education across much of the world, and Saudi Arabia is no exception.

English and Mathematics, the two core subjects in Saudi Arabia’s national curriculum, are considered essential prerequisites for a wide range of careers. Despite substantial efforts by the Saudi government to improve the teaching and learning of these subjects, students’ achievement outcomes remain inadequate and significantly below expectations. Researchers (e.g., Al-Seghayer 2014, 2015; Alharbi et al. 2020; Almesaar 2022; Alqahtani 2019; Alrabai 2016; Alshammari 2022; Haque et al. 2023; Kandeel 2021) have identified several factors contributing to these shortcomings. These include teacher-centered instruction, limited time for teaching these subjects, a lack of diverse and appropriate teaching resources, students relying on memorization as the primary learning strategy, teachers relying solely on prescribed textbooks, textbooks focusing on delivering knowledge rather than skill development, and a lack of suitable training programs for enhancing teaching methods and practices.

21st century skills are not inherent and must therefore be taught and trained in students during their schooling (Stehle and Peters-Burton 2019). Teachers play a pivotal role in integrating these skills into their daily teaching practices to ensure that students not only excel academically in these subjects but also acquire the essential skills needed for personal and professional success in the modern world. Developing these skills among English and Mathematics students is crucial, given that these subjects constitute a significant portion of students’ education in schools. Furthermore, incorporating 21st century skills can improve teaching practices and enhance student learning of these core subjects by making lessons more interactive, engaging, and relevant to real-life situations.

Aims of the study

The present study aims to explore the extent to which Saudi teachers integrate 21st century skills into their daily teaching practices. Although the integration of these skills has been widely examined in international contexts, there remains a significant gap in empirical research within the Saudi educational system, particularly regarding the levels of integration and the barriers encountered in actual classroom implementation. This study seeks to address this gap by focusing specifically on English and Mathematics instruction at the intermediate school level. Utilizing a mixed-methods research design, this study aims to address the following two overarching research objectives:

  1. 1.

    To investigate the extent to which English and Mathematics teachers incorporate four primary 21st century skills (i.e., creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, and communication) into their teaching practices.

  2. 2.

    To identify the major barriers preventing English and Mathematics teachers from integrating these four 21st century skills into their teaching practices.

Methods

Research design

This research study used a sequential exploratory mixed-method research design. In this research design, qualitative data is collected first and, following analysis, the results of the analyzed data are then used to drive the development of a quantitative questionnaire to further explore the research phenomena (Creswell 2005, 2009). In the qualitative phase of this study, observation was used to explore the extent to which English and Mathematics teachers integrate the four 21st century skills. Semi-structured interviews were also conducted to elicit more information concerning the key barriers that impede English and Mathematics teachers from integrating the four 21st century skills into their teaching practices. The findings of the semi-structured interviews were used to develop the survey in the second quantitative phase. The survey aimed to validate the results of the semi-structured interviews.

Participants

The study involved 40 participants (20 English teachers and 20 Mathematics teachers) in the qualitative phase, and 173 participants (84 English teachers and 89 Mathematics teachers) in the subsequent quantitative phase. All participants were male teachers who taught English and Mathematics at public intermediate schools in a major north-central region of Saudi Arabia. Schools were selected using stratified sampling to ensure regional diversity, while teachers were recruited through convenience sampling, based on their availability and willingness to participate. The inclusion of male teachers only was due to administrative and cultural constraints that limited access to female schools. Approval for conducting this study was sought and obtained from the local University Ethics Panel, the local Department of Education, and the School Administrations. All participants were informed that their participation in this study was voluntary, were provided with information about the aims of the research, and were assured that their identities would remain confidential. Each participant involved in the observations and interviews signed an informed consent form prior to the commencement of data collection. They were explicitly informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time without needing to provide justification.

Data collection instruments

Observation card

The observation card was based on a modified instrument adopted from Hixson et al. (2012), which is a widely recognized survey for evaluating teaching practices that promote 21st century learning (Niu et al. 2021; Wilcox 2017). Specifically, the observation card comprised 14 items (see Table 1), divided among the four target 21st century skills (Hixson et al. 2012). The observation items were structured as statements to be rated on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree) by the observers.

Table 1 Description of the four 21st century skills by items (observations).
Full size table

Semi-structured interviews

After the observation phase revealed that teachers’ practices of the four 21st century skills were at extremely weak levels, these results directly informed the construction of the interview questions. The interview protocol was developed by the authors to explore in depth the barriers that prevented teachers from effectively integrating creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, and communication into their instruction. All questions were open-ended to encourage teachers to elaborate on their experiences and perspectives. For example, one guiding question asked: “From our observations, we noticed that English and Mathematics teachers implemented the four 21st century skills at extremely weak levels in their teaching practices. What are the most important barriers that hinder you from implementing these skills?”

Survey questionnaire

Findings from the semi-structured interviews directly informed the development of the survey questionnaire. While the interviews identified key barriers that hindered the integration of 21st century skills, the survey was designed to validate these findings with a larger sample of teachers. The instrument was constructed by the authors and consisted of four subscales: curriculum-related barriers, teacher-related barriers, student-related barriers, and administration-related barriers. Each subscale contained three items (see Table 3). Face validity was established by soliciting feedback from four educational experts, who reviewed the items for clarity and relevance. Their suggestions were incorporated before final administration.

Procedures

Observation phase

Forty teachers (20 English and 20 Mathematics) from 20 intermediate schools were observed, with one teacher of each subject selected per school. Each teacher was observed twice during regular classroom lessons by the two researchers using a structured direct observation method. Prior to data collection, the researchers underwent calibration sessions to ensure consistency in applying the observation instrument. Observations were carried out in a natural classroom setting, which allowed teachers to deliver lessons without interferences. After each session, the two observers compared and discussed their ratings to resolve discrepancies and strengthen inter-rater reliability.

Interview phase

Following the observations, 20 teachers (10 English and 10 Mathematics) volunteered to participate in semi-structured interviews. The interviews were conducted in Arabic to ensure clarity, comfort, and full comprehension for participants. In addition, they took place in quiet rooms within the teachers’ schools. Each interview lasted ~15 min, was audio-recorded with consent, and transcribed verbatim. To maintain accuracy, transcripts were translated into English using a back-translation process conducted by the researchers and verified for equivalence by an independent bilingual reviewer. The interviews generated rich contextual data on the barriers teachers faced in implementing 21st century skills.

Survey phase

The survey was delivered online, with invitations first sent to school principals, who then shared the link with English and Mathematics teachers in their schools. The link was distributed through messaging applications commonly used by schools and teachers, which made it easy for teachers to access and complete. Before beginning the survey, teachers received an information sheet explaining the purpose of the study, assuring confidentiality, and stating their right to withdraw at any stage. Informed consent was obtained electronically, as teachers were required to indicate their agreement before proceeding to the questionnaire. In total, 173 teachers (84 English and 89 Mathematics) completed the online questionnaire.

Data analysis

Observation data

Descriptive statistics, including means, standard deviations, and practice levels, were calculated for all observation items. Mean scores were interpreted using predetermined cut-off intervals: extremely weak (1.00–1.80), weak (1.81–2.60), moderate (2.61–3.40), high (3.41–4.20), and extremely high (4.21–5.00). These intervals allowed for consistent interpretation of teachers’ observed practices in relation to the four 21st century skills.

Interview data

The interview transcripts were analyzed using thematic analysis following the six-phase framework proposed by Braun and Clarke (2006). First, the researchers immersed themselves in the data through repeated reading of the transcripts to ensure familiarization (Phase 1). Then, initial codes were generated to capture meaningful features across the dataset (Phase 2). In Phase 3, these codes were collated into potential themes and subthemes, reflecting recurring barriers reported by the teachers. In Phase 4, themes were reviewed and refined in relation to both the coded extracts and the entire dataset to ensure coherence and internal consistency. During Phase 5, themes were defined and clearly named, capturing their core essence and ensuring distinctiveness from other themes. Finally, in Phase 6, the themes were organized and reported with illustrative participant quotes to convey rich and authentic insights into the barriers faced by teachers in integrating 21st century skills (Braun and Clarke 2006).

Survey data

Survey responses were analyzed using descriptive statistics, including means, standard deviations, and subscale rankings. This analysis provided a quantitative overview of the barriers reported by teachers and complemented the qualitative findings from the observation and interview phases.

Trustworthiness and reliability

Observation reliability

Prior to the formal observation phase, both observers underwent extensive training and calibration exercises to ensure consistency in applying the instrument. These preparatory steps were critical for achieving accuracy across diverse classrooms and teaching styles. After each observation, the observers met to compare ratings and resolve discrepancies. The overall inter-rater reliability between the two researchers was 94%, which is considered almost perfect agreement according to Cohen’s Kappa index (Hallgren 2012).

To further validate the observation method, a pilot study was conducted with 10 teachers (5 Mathematics and 5 English), each observed during two lessons. This preliminary phase produced an inter-rater reliability score of 0.93, which confirmed consistency in observation practices. Internal consistency was also assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, which demonstrated strong reliability across the four domains: creativity (0.91), critical thinking (0.83), collaboration (0.89), and communication (0.80). These results indicate that the observation instrument was both reliable and suitable for the study.

Survey reliability

The questionnaire underwent face validation by four experienced faculty members, who reviewed the items for clarity, accuracy, and relevance. Their feedback was incorporated into the final version. Internal consistency was then examined using Cronbach’s alpha. Results indicated high reliability for all four subscales: curriculum-related barriers (0.90), teacher-related barriers (0.82), student-related barriers (0.77), and administration-related barriers (0.84). The overall scale achieved a coefficient of 0.81, with no item–total correlations below 0.30, which indicates a strong internal consistency.

Qualitative trustworthiness

For the interview data, Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) criteria were applied to ensure credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability. Credibility was supported through member checking and peer debriefing. Transferability was enhanced by providing detailed accounts of the research context and participants. Dependability was supported through a clear audit trail documenting analytic decisions. Finally, confirmability was strengthened through reflexive discussions among the researchers. To further enhance accuracy, intercoder reliability was established through independent coding by the two researchers, with a high level of agreement achieved.

Results

Results of observations

Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics for the observed practices of English and Mathematics teachers across the four 21st century skills. For creativity, scores ranged from 1.40 to 1.83. These values fall within the extremely weak to weak levels. Teachers rarely encouraged idea generation, problem solving, or the use of creative techniques such as brainstorming. For critical thinking, the means ranged from 1.55 to 1.94, which also represents weak to extremely weak levels. Students were seldom asked to analyze information, draw their own conclusions, or construct evidence-based arguments. Collaboration showed the lowest scores overall, between 1.29 and 1.80, placing it firmly in the extremely weak range. Teachers provided few chances for peer feedback, group projects, or collective goal setting, and this limited students’ ability to practice teamwork. For communication, one item reached a moderate level (M = 2.93). However, the other two items were extremely weak (M = 1.30 and 1.18). This shows that students had very limited opportunities to give presentations or demonstrate their learning in front of others. Taken together, the findings show that teachers’ practices in integrating 21st century skills were mostly at extremely weak levels. This result highlights the importance of exploring, through interviews and surveys, the barriers that prevent teachers from applying these skills more effectively in their classrooms.

Results of semi-structured interviews

Thematic analysis of the interviews highlighted major barriers that hindered English and Mathematics teachers from implementing the four 21st century skills into their teaching practices. These barriers were classified into four main themes: (i) curriculum-related barriers, (ii) student-related barriers, (iii) teacher-related barriers, and (iv) administration-related barriers.

Teachers repeatedly reported that the curriculum was a major barrier impeding their implementation of 21st century skills into their teaching practices. They highlighted three specific issues related to the curriculum: (i) the textbooks contain a large number of topics, (ii) the topics in the textbooks are not designed to support the development of 21st century skills, and (iii) teachers are restricted to using textbooks as their only source of instruction.

Teachers also stressed that factors related to the teachers themselves were major deterrents to the implementation of 21st century skills. They specifically pointed out three issues: (i) teachers’ attitudes toward 21st century skills, (ii) teachers’ low competence in integrating 21st century skills, and (iii) teachers’ fear of being unable to control their classrooms.

Additionally, a number of teachers identified student-related barriers as significant hindrances to the implementation of 21st century skills. The student-related barriers frequently mentioned by teachers included: (i) students’ low competence in English and Mathematics, (ii) the large number of students in each classroom, and (iii) students’ preference for traditional teaching methods.

Furthermore, teachers highlighted administration-related barriers as influential constraints to the integration of 21st century skills. The commonly noted administration-related barriers included: (i) lack of encouragement and support from school administration and educational supervisors, and (ii) official assessments used in schools that do not support the development of 21st century skills.

These overarching themes, their associated subthemes, and examples of the codes that led to the development of these themes and subthemes are presented in Table 2 below.

Table 2 Findings from semi-structured interviews: main themes, subthemes, and examples of coded extracts.
Full size table

Results of the survey

Table 3 presents the descriptive statistics of teachers’ agreements regarding the barriers that hinder the integration of the four 21st century skills into their teaching practices. The analysis revealed that all curriculum-related barriers had a high level of agreement. Specifically, the large number of topics to be covered (M = 3.90), the restriction to textbooks as the sole source of instruction (M = 3.76), and topics not being designed to promote 21st century skills (M = 3.49).

Table 3 Descriptive statistics on the barriers to integrating 21st century skills into instruction.
Full size table

Similarly, teachers highly agreed on student-related barriers, with mean scores ranging from (M = 3.65) for students’ preference for traditional teaching approaches to (M = 4.26) for the large number of students in each classroom. Regarding administration-related barriers, teachers reported a lack of encouragement and support from educational supervisors (M = 3.26) and school administrations (M = 3.58), and that official assessments do not support the development of 21st century skills (M = 3.80). Finally, teachers moderately agreed on the teacher-related barriers, with mean scores ranging from (M = 2.99) for the fear of being unable to control the class when implementing 21st century skills to (M = 3.27) for teachers not prioritizing the development of these skills.

Table 4 shows the mean scores and ranks for the four major types of barriers. The highest average score was for student-related barriers (M = 3.98), followed by curriculum-related barriers (M = 3.72). Administration-related barriers had a mean score of (M = 3.55), while teacher-related barriers had the lowest average score (M = 3.13).

Table 4 Descriptive statistics of the barriers to integrating 21st century skills by subscales.
Full size table

Integrative analysis of findings

When the results from the three phases are considered together, they present a consistent and complementary picture. Classroom observations showed that teachers’ practices in integrating the four 21st century skills were predominantly at extremely weak levels. The interview data helped to explain these patterns, as teachers identified barriers related to the curriculum, students, administration, and teachers themselves. The survey findings further confirmed and extended these themes, with student-related barriers (M = 3.98) and curriculum-related barriers (M = 3.72) receiving the highest ratings, followed by administrative barriers (M = 3.55) and teacher-related barriers (M = 3.13). Taken together, these strands demonstrate strong convergence: the observations highlight the low levels of practice, while the interviews and survey data explain and confirm the underlying causes and their prevalence. They also demonstrate complementarity: observations reveal what occurs in classrooms, interviews explain why these patterns arise, and surveys indicate how widespread these challenges are among teachers. This integration strengthens the coherence and depth of the study’s conclusions, highlighting the systemic and contextual nature of the barriers to 21st century skill integration.

Discussion

This study focused on two primary research objectives. The first objective was to assess the extent to which Saudi English and Mathematics teachers incorporate four key 21st century skills, namely: creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, and communication, into their instruction. The second objective aimed to identify the main barriers preventing these teachers from integrating these skills into their teaching practices. To achieve these goals, a sequential exploratory mixed-methods research design was employed. In the first phase, classroom observations were conducted for 20 English and 20 Mathematics teachers to evaluate the degree of integration of these skills. Additionally, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 teachers from each subject to gain deeper insights into the primary barriers to fostering the four 21st century skills. The findings from these interviews informed the development of a survey used in the second, quantitative phase, which aimed to validate the results from the semi-structured interviews.

The findings from the observations revealed that the integration of the four 21st century skills by English and Mathematics teachers was at an extremely weak level. During the follow-up interviews, teachers provided insights into the key barriers preventing them from effectively integrating these skills into their teaching practices. The themes identified from these interviews served as the foundation for developing the survey tool. The survey results were consistent with the interview findings, highlighting four primary categories of constraints that hinder English and Mathematics teachers from embedding the four 21st century skills into their classroom instruction. These barriers include curriculum-related, teacher-related, student-related, and administration-related challenges. The following paragraphs discuss these results and their potential explanations in greater detail.

Curriculum-related barriers

According to the findings of this study, the first set of challenges preventing English and Mathematics teachers from integrating 21st century skills are curriculum-related barriers. These barriers include: (i) textbooks containing a large number of topics, (ii) topics are not designed to support the development of 21st century skills, and (iii) teachers being restricted to using textbooks as the sole source of instruction. These findings are consistent with previous research (Al Asmari 2015, 2013; Al-Nasser 2015; Al-Qahtani 2016; Alhmadi 2014; Alrabai 2016, 2017; Alshammari 2022; Khalid et al. 2021), which has identified the curriculum as a significant obstacle to the development of effective teaching practices and student-centered learning in Saudi Arabia.

Regarding the first curriculum constraint, that ‘textbooks contain a large number of topics’, Khalid et al. (2021) and Al-Nasser (2015) argued that the curriculum is overly detailed in terms of topics, leading teachers to feel that they cannot cover the required syllabus within the allotted time. As a result, teachers often resort to traditional teaching methods to save time. In this context, the educational system in Saudi Arabia is centralized and controlled by the Ministry of Education. Teachers at each grade level are provided with an identical syllabus, along with guidelines and deadlines that they must adhere to (Al-Seghayer 2014; Nather 2020). Al Asmari (2013) and Al-Tamimi (2019) noted that, due to the extensive curriculum content and the need to meet deadlines, teachers are frequently compelled to complete the syllabus as quickly as possible, often prioritizing speed over the educational benefits to students. This pressure to cover extensive content in a limited time frame might have contributed to the low integration of the four 21st century skills, as teachers are unable to incorporate more innovative and student-centered approaches into their instruction.

Apart from the large number of topics, the results also revealed that the textbooks are designed in a way that does not support the development of the 21st century skills. In this regard, Al Asmari (2015) suggested that it is difficult for teachers to integrate student-centred strategies when the study materials and content do not support this method of teaching. Al-Seghayer (2014) stated that the textbooks currently used in Saudi Arabia emphasise imparting knowledge at the expense of teaching relevant skills and meaningful experiences. More specifically, the content of the curriculum seems to be concerned with presenting the information to the students, rather than providing them with ample activities which are designed to improve their skills, such as thinking critically and creatively, communicating effectively and working collaboratively.

Beyond the constraints mentioned earlier, this study also revealed that teachers are limited to using textbooks as their sole source of instruction, a limitation that prevents them from incorporating the four 21st century skills into their teaching practices. As previously discussed, teachers are mandated to follow the prescribed curriculum and engage in preselected activities, which leave little room for personal choice or innovation (Al-Qahtani 2016; Al-Seghayer 2014; Alrabai 2016, 2017; Nather 2020). Al-Seghayer (2014) highlighted that the centralized nature of the Saudi education system significantly reduces teachers’ autonomy in creating and implementing their own activities. Furthermore, this restriction compels teachers to operate within defined boundaries, potentially deterring them from devising their own strategies to foster the development of the 21st century skills or leading them to believe that promoting these skills falls outside their scope of responsibilities.

Teacher-related barriers

In addition to the curriculum-related constraints, this study also identified a set of teacher-related obstacles: (i) teachers do not prioritize the development of 21st century skills for their students, (ii) teachers lack the knowledge and competence required to integrate 21st century skills, and (iii) teachers are concerned about losing control of their classrooms if they attempt to incorporate these skills.

The first constraint, ‘teachers do not prioritise the development of the 21st century skills’, is supported by the findings of Al-Qahtani (2016). Teachers in his study viewed that developing their students’ creativity does not fall within the scope of their roles in school. They indicated that their main roles focus on presenting information and materials to the students, according to the existing curriculum, and promoting creativity was considered of secondary importance and could perhaps be done when they had free time. In a similar vein, the Saudi curriculum policies and regulations, as mentioned by the teachers interviewed in this study, do not specify the 21st century skills among the key competencies to be developed in schools. Hence, it is likely that this has influenced teachers’ perspectives, leading them to deprioritize the integration of these skills into their teaching practices.

The findings of this study also indicated that teachers’ low competence in integrating 21st century skills is a hindrance that negatively impacts their ability to incorporate these skills into their teaching practices. This result aligns with previous research (Ahmad 2015; Alaraj 2016; Al Asmari 2015, 2013; Al-Nasser 2015; Al-Qahtani 2016; Alruwaili 2024) that identifies a lack of knowledge and training as crucial factors that adversely affect teachers’ attitudes and behaviors towards promoting 21st century skills and other student-centered activities. Al-Qahtani (2016) argued that a lack of knowledge and training on how to integrate 21st century skills can diminish teachers’ motivation and attitudes, both of which are essential for fostering these skills in classrooms. Similarly, Alruwaili (2024) emphasized that teachers’ inadequate theoretical and practical understanding of 21st century skills can hinder their ability to effectively cultivate these skills in their students.

The results of this study also suggested that teachers’ fear of losing control of their classroom inhibit their integrations of the 21st century skills in the teaching process. Al Asmari (2013) explained that teachers could be afraid of providing some responsibilities to their students for the fear of losing control, especially if they have succeeded in maintaining the control of their classrooms for most of their teaching life. From a Saudi cultural point of view, a teacher is considered a prominent figure who deserves great respect in the school, fairly enough. As the 21st century skills require students to take an active part in the learning process, teachers might have believed that promoting the 21st century skills could violate their control of the classrooms.

Student-related barriers

Student-related barriers constitute the third major set of challenges that English and Mathematics teachers face when integrating 21st century skills into their teaching practices. These barriers include: (i) large class sizes, (ii) students’ low proficiency in English and Mathematics, and (iii) students’ preference for traditional teaching methods.

The findings of this study indicated that teachers view large class sizes as a significant challenge to integrating 21st century skills into their teaching practices. Large numbers of students in a classroom can make it difficult for teachers to provide individualized attention and facilitate the active, student-centered learning necessary for developing these skills. In this regard, when classrooms are overcrowded, teachers may struggle to manage diverse student needs, which leads to a reliance on traditional, lecture-based teaching methods that are easier to control but less effective in fostering critical thinking, collaboration, creativity, and communication. This result aligns with previous research, which suggests that overcrowded classrooms are a primary factor influencing teachers’ preference for traditional teaching methods (Alhmadi 2014; Alrabai 2016; Alruwaili 2024; Al-Seghayer 2014; Al-Tamimi 2019; Tawalbeh and Al Asmari 2015).

Teachers also perceived students’ preference for the traditional teaching approach as a hindrance to the promotion of 21st century skills. This finding aligns with previous research (Herrera 2019; Silva et al. 2019), which highlighted that teachers view students’ preference for traditional methods as a major challenge to implementing active learning strategies in classrooms. Alrabai (2014) explained that because Saudi students have been long exposed to rigid, teacher-centered approaches, they often fear making mistakes, are reluctant to engage in classroom discussions, seldom ask questions, and overly rely on conventional learning strategies such as reception, memorization, and reproduction. This reliance on teachers as the primary source of knowledge may have shaped teachers’ perception that students prefer traditional teaching methods.

The results of this study also highlighted that students’ low competence in English and Mathematics is a major barrier to the integration of 21st century skills. Teachers’ responses in the semi-structured interviews provide insight into this issue. The teachers frequently emphasized that most students lack the basic knowledge in English and Mathematics necessary to participate in activities that promote 21st century skills. This finding aligns with Al-Qahtani’s (2016) study, where teachers believed that creativity, one of the four 21st century skills examined in this study, is not suitable for students due to their academic achievement being far below the level required for engaging in creative activities.

Administration-related barriers

Administrative barriers constitute the fourth major challenge preventing English and Mathematics teachers from fostering 21st century skills in their teaching practices. These challenges include: (i) a lack of encouragement and support from school administration and educational supervisors for teachers to develop 21st century skills, and (ii) the formal assessment methods used in schools do not support the integration of 21st century skills.

Pertaining to the lack of encouragement and support from school administration and educational supervisors, previous research studies by Al Asmari (2013) and Alrabai (2016) indicate that the main concern of educational supervisors and head of schools is that teachers present and cover all of the content in the syllabus to the students, regardless of whether they use innovative teaching strategies or not. In addition, the teachers’ evaluation by school administration and educational supervisors, as mentioned by the teachers during the interviews, does not include criteria that encourage the integration of the 21st century skills. This might have led to demoralisation concerning the integration of these skills by teachers. Al-Qahtani (2016) argued that the head of schools and educational supervisors need to advocate classroom teaching practices that are conducive to promoting the belief that 21st century skills are valuable in the teaching process.

The results of this study also highlighted that current assessment methods in schools present an additional barrier to integrating 21st century skills into classrooms. The assessment practices within the Saudi education system rely heavily on written exams to evaluate student learning outcomes (Alrabai 2016), which do not adequately measure students’ competencies in 21st century skills. This reliance on written exams, which focus primarily on memorization and recall (Alruwaili 2024; Khalid et al. 2021), fails to evaluate essential 21st century skills such as critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, and communication. As these skills are not prioritized in student assessment guidelines, teachers may perceive them as less important. This can lead to a reduced emphasis on promoting these skills in their teaching.

Implications, limitations and conclusion

This study has produced several important implications for the integration of the four primary 21st century skills. First, the curriculum needs to be restructured to more effectively incorporate these skills. Curriculum designers should prioritize quality over quantity to ensure that the content is focused and not excessively dense. By streamlining the curriculum, teachers can alleviate the pressure to cover all material within a limited time, which allow them to dedicate more attention to fostering 21st century skills in their students. Additionally, national assessment policies should move beyond rote memorization and incorporate performance-based assessments that evaluate 21st century competencies. This may involve training assessment designers and schools to use rubrics, portfolios, group projects, and oral presentations as part of student evaluation. Also, both pre-service and in-service teachers should receive comprehensive training on how to develop and enhance these skills among their students. This training should equip teachers with the tools and strategies necessary to integrate critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, and communication into their daily teaching practices.

Furthermore, it is essential that teachers are granted autonomy in selecting, preparing, and designing activities that promote 21st century skills. This flexibility would enable them to tailor activities to their students’ interests, needs, knowledge, and abilities, which makes the learning process more relevant and engaging. At the same time, educational authorities in Saudi Arabia need to address the issue of overcrowded classrooms. Reducing class sizes would make it easier to implement student-centered activities and allow teachers to provide the individualized attention needed to develop 21st century skills.

Finally, school administrators and educational supervisors should create an environment that encourages and supports the inclusion of 21st century skills. By fostering a culture that values these skills, teachers are more likely to recognize their importance and integrate them into their teaching practices. Moreover, classroom assessments should be revised to align with the nature of 21st century skills and support their development. Moving beyond traditional exams and incorporating assessment methods that evaluate students’ abilities in critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, and communication will reinforce the significance of these skills in the educational process.

Aside from the implications identified, this study has several limitations that warrant attention. First, the sample was restricted to male teachers from a single region in Saudi Arabia due to administrative and cultural constraints that prevented access to female schools. As a result, the findings may not be fully generalizable to female teachers, teachers in other regions, or different educational contexts. Future research should seek to include more diverse samples across gender, geographic regions, and school types to provide a comprehensive understanding of the barriers and practices related to 21st century skill integration. Second, the focus on English and Mathematics teachers was a deliberate design choice aligned with the study’s objectives. However, this focus limits the findings to these two subject areas. Future studies should explore how teachers in other disciplines approach the integration of 21st century skills in order to capture a broader picture. Third, the study examined only four specific 21st century skills (i.e., creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, and communication). While these are central, additional skills such as adaptability, problem-solving, and leadership also play an important role in modern education. Further research could investigate these additional skills within the Saudi context. Finally, the study concentrated solely on teachers’ perspectives. Including the views of other stakeholders, such as students, school administrators, and educational supervisors, would provide a holistic understanding of the challenges and opportunities associated with integrating 21st century skills in schools.

In conclusion, this study highlights the urgent need to transform instructional practices in Saudi schools to equip teachers with the tools, autonomy, and institutional support required to foster 21st century skills. The findings reveal that challenges are distributed across multiple stakeholder levels, including the curriculum, teachers, students, and administration, which highlight the interdependent nature of the barriers. These findings suggest that no single stakeholder group can successfully promote 21st century skills in isolation. Instead, coordinated efforts across all stakeholders are essential. Developing these competencies is not merely a pedagogical preference but a national imperative to align with the Saudi Vision 2030. By investing, for example, in curriculum reforms and targeted teacher development, educational authorities can create conditions where creativity, collaboration, critical thinking, and communication are not only taught, but lived in every classroom.