Animal Structure and Function

Animal bodies are hierarchically organised from molecules and cells through tissues, organs and whole systems. Cellular architecture—membranes, cytoskeletons and extracellular matrices—provides mechanical support, compartmentalisation and controlled interfaces with the environment. At higher levels, skeletal elements resist compressive, tensile and bending loads, while muscle fibres generate contractile forces transmitted by tendons and aponeuroses. These musculoskeletal components are complemented by fluid‐filled circulatory and respiratory systems that exchange gases, nutrients and signals. Functional integration relies on feedback loops—chemical, electrical and mechanical—that maintain homeostasis and coordinate adaptive responses from the subcellular to the organismal scale. Recent advances in imaging, molecular profiling and in vivo sensing have revealed how mechanotransduction, endocrine crosstalk and metabolic regulation underpin development, repair and ageing across species. A deeper mechanistic grasp of structure–function relationships informs applications from prosthetic design to regenerative medicine, highlighting universal principles—such as energy‐efficient form, reversible adhesion and sensorimotor control—that guide both evolution and bioinspired engineering.

Research from Nature Portfolio

Metabolomic studies have identified serum γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and D-β-aminoisobutyric acid (D-BAIBA) as correlates of bone mineral density, fracture risk and physical activity status. Both aminobutyric isomers associate positively with skeletal health and exercise, while genetic variants in enzymes regulating these metabolites link muscle loading to bone turnover, suggesting minimally invasive biomarkers for clinical assessment.

In diabetic models, local antagonism of the myokine myostatin (GDF8) by follistatin restored osteogenic differentiation and mineralisation in tibial defects. Treated mice exhibited six-fold increases in bone repair, enhanced proliferation and matrix deposition, underscoring muscle-derived factors’ dual roles in skeletal regeneration and validating myostatin inhibition as a therapeutic target for metabolic bone disease.

In mitochondrial complex I-deficient mice, transgenic expression of a single-molecule yeast NADH dehydrogenase (NDI1) rescued acute oxygen sensing in carotid chemoreceptors and restored hypoxic ventilatory responses without proton-pumping activity. This work clarifies the bioenergetic basis of arterial chemoreception and supports gene therapy approaches to correct respiratory deficits.

Research from all publishers

Ageing studies of “osteosarcopenia” have profiled extracellular vesicle microRNAs from senescent muscle and bone cells, revealing distinct miRNA signatures that disrupt partner‐tissue homeostasis. Targeting these vesicle‐bound signals may counteract concurrent bone loss and muscle atrophy in the elderly.

Exercise‐science trials show that combined progressive resistance, weight-bearing impact and balance training optimises bone–muscle crosstalk by modulating myokine and osteokine secretion. Mechanical loading reprogrammes extracellular vesicle cargo, enhancing bone density, muscle mass and functional performance more effectively than single-modality regimens.

Within the masticatory system, masseter muscle adaptation alters release of unique myokines that regulate mandibular remodelling. Paracrine signals from jaw muscles complement mechanical strain, offering novel insights for treating temporomandibular disorders and improving craniofacial reconstructive outcomes.

Animal Structure and Function publication trend

The graph below shows the total number of articles in animal structure and function across all publications each year (not limited to Nature Index journals).

Technical terms

Mechanotransduction: Cellular conversion of mechanical stimuli into biochemical signals to regulate structural adaptation.

Myokine: A bioactive protein secreted by muscle cells that influences local and distant tissues, including bone.

Osteokine: A hormone-like factor produced by bone cells that modulates muscle activity and systemic metabolism.

Metabolomics: The large-scale analysis of small-molecule metabolites reflecting physiological states.

Shear wave tensiometer: A device that noninvasively measures tendon stress by tracking induced shear wave speeds along the tissue.

Myostatin (GDF8): A transforming growth factor-β family member that inhibits muscle growth and affects bone regeneration.

Aminobutyric acids: Metabolites such as GABA and BAIBA that link muscle activity to skeletal health and may serve as osteoporosis biomarkers.

References

1. Structure: From Organelle and Cell Membrane to Tissue.
2. Quantification of aminobutyric acids and their clinical applications as biomarkers for osteoporosis. Communications Biology (2020).
3. Inhibition of GDF8 (Myostatin) accelerates bone regeneration in diabetes mellitus type 2. Scientific Reports (2017).
4. Transgenic NADH dehydrogenase restores oxygen regulation of breathing in mitochondrial complex I-deficient mice. Nature Communications (2023).
5. Bone and Muscle Crosstalk in Aging. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology (2020).
6. Role of Physical Activity in Bone–Muscle Crosstalk: Biological Aspects and Clinical Implications. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology (2021).
7. Muscle-Bone Crosstalk in the Masticatory System: From Biomechanical to Molecular Interactions. Frontiers in Endocrinology (2021).