Biomineralization of Dental Enamel

Dental enamel is the hardest and most highly mineralised tissue in the human body, comprising approximately 95 wt% mineral in the form of carbonated hydroxyapatite organised into hierarchically arranged rods and interrod regions. Its formation, or amelogenesis, proceeds in two major stages: a secretory phase during which specialised epithelial cells called ameloblasts secrete an organic matrix rich in enamel-specific proteins, and a maturation phase characterised by proteolytic processing of that matrix, controlled ion fluxes and the transformation of an amorphous calcium phosphate precursor into well-ordered hydroxyapatite crystals. Matrix proteins such as amelogenin guide nucleation, stabilise transient mineral phases and impose nanoscale organisation, while extracellular proteases fine-tune crystal growth and matrix removal. This concerted biomineralisation process yields a wear-resistant, fracture-tough material essential for mastication, with broad implications for understanding mineralised tissues and inspiring bioinspired repair strategies.

Research from Nature Portfolio

Recent studies have demonstrated the power of protein‐mediated and template‐driven approaches to engineer enamel‐like structures. One investigation exploited the intrinsic disorder–order interplay of elastin-like recombinamers to programme organic–inorganic interactions, yielding spherulitic assemblies of elongated apatite nanocrystals that coalesce into macroscopic, acid-resistant coatings with tunable hierarchy and mechanical properties. Another work revealed that amelogenin self-assembles into amyloid-like β-sheet ribbons both in vitro and within developing enamel matrices, proposing that these nanoribbons template the oriented growth of hydroxyapatite arrays. In parallel, an innovative approach used amorphous calcium phosphate nanoparticles as a substrate in near-physiological solution, whereby phase transformation readily generates an intermediate low-crystalline layer that directs the growth of c-axis-oriented hydroxyapatite nanorods, effectively recreating enamel architecture without complex surface functionalisation.

Biomineralization of Dental Enamel publication trend

The graph below shows the total number of articles in biomineralization of dental enamel across all publications each year (not limited to Nature Index journals).

Technical terms

Biomineralization: The biologically controlled formation of mineral phases within an organic matrix, yielding hierarchical composite tissues.

Amelogenin: The predominant enamel matrix protein, responsible for guiding mineral nucleation, stabilising transient phases and directing crystal alignment.

Amorphous Calcium Phosphate (ACP): A metastable, non-crystalline precursor phase that nucleates within the enamel matrix before transforming into crystalline hydroxyapatite.

Hydroxyapatite: The crystalline form of calcium phosphate (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) that constitutes the mineral phase of enamel, bone and dentine.

Amyloid-like assembly: A supramolecular β-sheet-rich structure formed by proteins such as amelogenin, serving as a template for ordered mineral growth.

References

1. Black Phosphorus Nanosheets‐Loaded Mussel‐Inspired Hydrogel with Wet Adhesion, Photothermal Antimicrobial, and In Situ Remineralization Capabilities for Caries Prevention. Advanced Science (2024).
2. Protein disorder–order interplay to guide the growth of hierarchical mineralized structures. Nature Communications (2018).
3. Amyloid-like ribbons of amelogenins in enamel mineralization. Scientific Reports (2016).
4. Artificial enamel induced by phase transformation of amorphous nanoparticles. Scientific Reports (2017).
5. Advances in biomineralization-inspired materials for hard tissue repair. International Journal of Oral Science (2021).
6. Amelogenin phosphorylation regulates tooth enamel formation by stabilizing a transient amorphous mineral precursor. Journal of Biological Chemistry (2020).