Breastfeeding Practices and Infant Health Outcomes

Breastfeeding represents a cornerstone of infant nutrition and development, providing optimal macro‐ and micronutrients alongside bioactive factors that support immune function, gut maturation and neurodevelopment. Global guidelines recommend exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life, followed by continued breastfeeding with appropriate complementary foods up to two years or beyond. Rates of initiation and duration vary widely, influenced by cultural norms, healthcare practices and socioeconomic factors. Robust evidence links breastfeeding to reduced risks of infectious morbidity, hospital admissions and chronic conditions such as obesity and type 2 diabetes in later life. Breast milk also shapes the infant microbiome, enhancing resistance to gastrointestinal and respiratory pathogens. Beyond direct health outcomes, breastfeeding confers benefits for maternal well‐being, including reduced postpartum depression and lower long-term risks of certain cancers. Concerted public health strategies—ranging from supportive hospital policies to community interventions—are essential to overcome barriers and achieve recommended breastfeeding targets worldwide.

Research from Nature Portfolio

A large nationwide cohort study involving over 1.6 million children demonstrated that any breastfeeding in the first six months is associated with a 12 % reduction in hospital admissions for partially breastfed infants and a 15 % reduction for those exclusively breastfed, compared with fully formula‐fed peers. This protective effect was most pronounced in early childhood and gradually diminished with age. The findings reinforce the value of encouraging breastfeeding—even if partial—for at least the first six months as a public health measure to lower overall paediatric hospital burden.

Breastfeeding Practices and Infant Health Outcomes publication trend

The graph below shows the total number of articles in breastfeeding practices and infant health outcomes across all publications each year (not limited to Nature Index journals).

Technical terms

Exclusive breastfeeding: Feeding an infant only breast milk (direct or expressed), without any additional food or drink, not even water, except for oral rehydration solutions or medicines when necessary.

Partial breastfeeding: A feeding regimen combining breast milk with formula, animal milk or solid foods before six months of age.

Necrotising enterocolitis (NEC): A severe intestinal disorder predominantly affecting preterm infants, characterised by inflammation and bacterial invasion of the bowel wall.

Human milk fortifier: Nutrient enrichment added to human breast milk—often used in neonatal care—to meet the higher protein and mineral requirements of preterm or very low birth weight infants.

Late-onset sepsis: A bloodstream infection occurring after the first 72 hours of life, commonly seen in hospitalised or preterm infants and often associated with central lines or invasive procedures.

References

1. Breastfeeding and impact on childhood hospital admissions: a nationwide birth cohort in South Korea. Nature Communications (2023).
2. Effect of human milk-based fortification in extremely preterm infants fed exclusively with breast milk: a randomised controlled trial. EClinicalMedicine (2024).
3. Long‐term consequences of breastfeeding on cholesterol, obesity, systolic blood pressure and type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. Acta Paediatrica (2015).
4. Breastfeeding and maternal health outcomes: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. Acta Paediatrica (2015).
5. Breastfeeding and the risk for diarrhea morbidity and mortality. BMC Public Health (2011).
6. Breastfeeding promotion interventions and breastfeeding practices: a systematic review. BMC Public Health (2013).
7. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Human Milk Feeding and Morbidity in Very Low Birth Weight Infants. Nutrients (2018).