Direct Contact Condensation Phenomena in Thermal Systems

Direct contact condensation occurs when a vapour phase comes into immediate physical contact with a cooler liquid phase, leading to rapid phase change and energy transfer. This process underpins a range of thermal systems, from pressure suppression pools in nuclear reactors to industrial heat exchangers and desalination units. The intimate mixing of vapour and liquid drives high heat and mass transfer rates, but also induces complex flow patterns, transient oscillations and thermal stratification. Key challenges include capturing the interplay of interface dynamics, turbulence, momentum exchange and latent heat release. Practical applications benefit from enhanced compactness and efficiency compared with surface condensers, yet require robust predictive models to ensure safety and performance. Recent advances integrate experimental visualisation, high-fidelity numerical simulation and reduced-order modelling to resolve contact interfaces at multiple scales. Insights into jet dynamics, bubble condensation regimes such as chugging, and entropy generation have improved design strategies for direct contact condensers, spargers and natural circulation systems. As global energy and environmental demands grow, optimised direct contact condensation systems promise more efficient heat recovery, lower environmental impact and safer operation in critical infrastructures.

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Direct Contact Condensation Phenomena in Thermal Systems publication trend

The graph below shows the total number of articles in direct contact condensation phenomena in thermal systems across all publications each year (not limited to Nature Index journals).

Technical terms

Direct contact condensation (DCC): The immediate phase change of vapour on contact with a cooler liquid, producing rapid heat transfer and droplet formation.

Thermal stratification: The formation of distinct temperature layers within a liquid pool due to competing buoyancy and mixing effects.

Chugging: Oscillatory condensation regime characterised by cyclic collapse and re-establishment of vapour–liquid interface structures.

Sparger: A device with multiple small openings used to inject steam or gas into a liquid, promoting direct contact mixing and condensation.

Effective Heat Source (EHS) and Effective Momentum Source (EMS) models: Reduced-order representations of heat and momentum injection used in CFD to simulate large-scale pool behaviour without resolving microscale interfaces.

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD): Numerical methods and software employed to simulate fluid flow, heat transfer and phase change in complex multiphase systems.

References

1. Simulation of jets induced by steam injection through multi-hole sparger using effective heat and momentum models. Nuclear Engineering and Design (2023).
2. Direct Contact Condensers: A Comprehensive Review of Experimental and Numerical Investigations on Direct-Contact Condensation. Energies (2022).
3. Pre-test analysis for definition of steam injection tests through multi-hole sparger in PANDA facility. Nuclear Engineering and Design (2022).
4. Effects of Direct Contact Condensation on Flow Characteristics of Natural Circulation System at Low Pressure. Frontiers in Energy Research (2020).
5. Axisymmetric Numerical Investigation on Steam Bubble Condensation. Energies (2019).
6. Entropy Assessment on Direct Contact Condensation of Subsonic Steam Jets in a Water Tank through Numerical Investigation. Entropy (2016).