Electrochemical Methods for Acetaminophen Detection

Electrochemical approaches to acetaminophen detection exploit its redox activity to achieve rapid, sensitive and cost-effective monitoring in pharmaceutical, clinical and environmental contexts. Core techniques such as cyclic voltammetry, differential pulse voltammetry and amperometry detect the oxidation peak of N-acetyl-p-aminophenol, with sensor performance dictated by electrode material and surface modification. Carbon-based electrodes—glassy carbon, carbon paste, screen-printed graphene and pencil-lead—are often enhanced with nanostructures (carbon nanotubes, graphene ink, metal oxides) or conductive polymers (Nafion, poly(methyl orange)) to increase active surface area, improve electron transfer kinetics and lower overpotential. Metal nanoparticles (Fe₂O₃, Fe₃O₄, bismuth oxide) and conductive metal-organic frameworks further boost electrocatalytic activity, enabling limits of detection down to the nanomolar range. Selectivity is achieved by careful control of surface chemistry to discriminate acetaminophen from common interferents such as dopamine, ascorbic acid and uric acid. Recent advances have focused on point-of-care disposable test strips for whole-blood or plasma measurements, miniaturised flow-injection systems for simultaneous multianalyte assays and hybrid sensing-photocatalysis platforms for environmental remediation. Collectively, these approaches demonstrate global significance for quality control of over-the-counter analgesics, real-time clinical monitoring of dosing and rapid screening of pharmaceutical contaminants in water.

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Enhanced voltammetric detection of acetaminophen has been demonstrated using a carbon nanotube paste electrode modified by electro-polymerised methyl orange. This sensor achieves detection limits below 40 nM and quantification limits around 10 nM, with a linear range spanning low micromolar concentrations. The electrocatalytic polymeric coating improves peak current and minimises fouling, while offering reproducible responses in pharmaceutical formulations.

A disposable finger-prick test strip incorporating single-walled carbon nanotubes and a Nafion-coated silver reference has been developed for point-of-care quantification in whole blood and plasma. A 40 µL sample yields a linear response from 1 µM to 2 mM and a detection limit near 0.8 µM, covering clinically relevant concentrations without pre-treatment. The scalable fabrication and stable potential control render this platform highly promising for bedside acetaminophen assays.

Conductive metal-organic frameworks synthesised from hexahydroxytriphenylene and mixed Ni/Cu centres have been employed for amperometric sensing of acetaminophen. The layered MOF material combines π-stacking conductivity with redox-active sites to deliver a detection limit of approximately 5 µM over a broad concentration window. It exhibits excellent reproducibility and interference tolerance, illustrating the potential of MOF-based architectures for electrochemical drug analysis.

Electrochemical Methods for Acetaminophen Detection publication trend

The graph below shows the total number of articles in electrochemical methods for acetaminophen detection across all publications each year (not limited to Nature Index journals).

Technical terms

Cyclic voltammetry (CV): A technique in which electrode potential is swept linearly and cyclically to probe redox processes and peak currents.

Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV): A pulsed potential method that enhances sensitivity by superimposing potential pulses on a linear sweep and measuring current differentials.

Amperometry: A constant-potential technique where current is monitored over time, proportional to analyte concentration at the electrode surface.

Electrocatalysis: Acceleration of redox reactions at an electrode through specialised surface modifiers or nanomaterials.

Limit of detection (LOD): The lowest analyte concentration that produces a signal distinguishable from baseline noise, typically defined by a signal-to-noise ratio of 3.

Overpotential: The extra potential beyond the thermodynamic requirement needed to drive an electrochemical reaction at a measurable rate.

References

1. Iron oxide (Fe2O3) nanoparticles modified carbon paste electrode as an advanced material for electrochemical investigation of paracetamol and dopamine. Journal of Science Advanced Materials and Devices (2019).
2. Graphene Ink Film Based Electrochemical Detector for Paracetamol Analysis. Electronics (2018).
3. Electrochemical detection and photocatalytic performance of MoS2/TiO2 nanocomposite against pharmaceutical contaminant: Paracetamol. Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research (2019).
4. Electrochemical Determination of Paracetamol Using Fe3O4/Reduced Graphene‐Oxide‐Based Electrode. Journal of Nanomaterials (2018).
5. Disposable Nafion-Coated Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Test Strip for Electrochemical Quantitative Determination of Acetaminophen in a Finger-Prick Whole Blood Sample. Analytical Chemistry (2020).
6. Multiwalled carbon nanotubes decorated with bismuth (III) oxide for electrochemical detection of an antipyretic and analgesic drug paracetamol in biological samples. Journal of Analytical Science and Technology (2019).
7. Pharmaceutical Electrochemistry: the Electrochemical Oxidation of Paracetamol and Its Voltammetric Sensing in Biological Samples Based on Screen Printed Graphene Electrodes. International Journal of Electrochemical Science (2015).
8. Paracetamol Sensing with a Pencil Lead Electrode Modified with Carbon Nanotubes and Polyvinylpyrrolidone. Chemosensors (2020).
9. Conductive Metal-Organic Frameworks for Amperometric Sensing of Paracetamol. Frontiers in Chemistry (2020).
10. Simple flow injection amperometric system for simultaneous determination of dipyrone and paracetamol in pharmaceutical formulations. Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society (2009).