Electrohydrodynamic Jet Printing Technologies

Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) jet printing harnesses strong electric fields to produce fine jets or droplets from a liquid meniscus. By applying a voltage between a conductive nozzle and a grounded substrate, ink at the nozzle tip deforms into a conical shape (the Taylor cone). At a critical field strength, a thin jet or spray of charged droplets emerges, enabling direct writing of features from tens of micrometres down to sub-micrometre resolution. This versatility allows patterning of diverse materials, including polymers, nanoparticles, biomolecules and conductive pastes, onto rigid, flexible and three-dimensional substrates without the need for masks or etching steps. Recent advances in nozzle design, fluid formulation and electric field control have extended the applicability of EHD jet printing to three-dimensional free-standing structures, high-throughput manufacture and subtractive material removal. As a result, EHD processes are poised to transform the fabrication of micro-and nano-electronics, sensors, biomedical devices and custom-engineered surfaces, offering a blend of high resolution, material compatibility and process efficiency not easily achieved by conventional techniques such as inkjet or photolithography.

Research from Nature Portfolio

Efforts to extend electrospray deposition efficiency have demonstrated near-100% material transfer onto targets smaller than the native spray plume. By engineering the local charge distribution, researchers achieved conformal coatings of polymers, proteins and bioactive small molecules on microneedle arrays and flat substrates with analytical validation of coating uniformity and retention. In parallel, stability of the Taylor cone-jet has been greatly enhanced through nozzle modifications that expand the operational window of flow rate and voltage. Employing a hemispherical cap above the emitter nozzle allowed sustained, high-throughput jetting across multiple alcohol-based fluids, enabling more reliable droplet delivery for printing and particle synthesis. Foundational work on high-viscosity paste patterning has shown that EHD jet printing can deposit narrow conductive lines below 100 micrometres from pastes exceeding 4 000 cP viscosity. Integration of such printed electrodes into thin-film transistors yielded devices with sheet resistances comparable to conventional screen-printing methods, illustrating the potential for printed electronics with fine feature sizes.

Research from all publishers

A novel subtractive approach utilises acid-based EHD jet printing to etch nanoscale channels into zinc oxide thin films. Tuning parameters such as ink composition and applied voltage enabled feature depths with nanometre precision and linewidths down to 11 micrometres, pointing towards rapid prototyping of microscale fluidic and electronic architectures without photolithography. Advances in computational modelling have paired machine learning with simulated electrospray particle data to predict plume dynamics and final particle characteristics. Random forest algorithms identified key factors governing plume angle and particle charge, offering new diagnostic strategies for real-time process control. Complementing these developments, insights into three-dimensional, support-free additive manufacturing have emerged by demonstrating 3D architectures with self-supporting overhangs at the micron scale. This electrospray-based strategy achieves freestanding microstructures without external scaffolds, broadening the horizon for bespoke micro-and nano-fabrication.

Electrohydrodynamic Jet Printing Technologies publication trend

The graph below shows the total number of articles in electrohydrodynamic jet printing technologies across all publications each year (not limited to Nature Index journals).

Technical terms

Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) jet printing: A technique that uses an electric field to draw liquid from a nozzle into fine jets or droplets for high-resolution material deposition.

Taylor cone-jet: The conical liquid interface formed under an electric field at a nozzle tip, which emits a jet of charged fluid when a threshold voltage is reached.

Electrospray deposition: A mode of EHD jet printing where charged droplets are used to coat or functionalise surfaces with high uniformity.

Subtractive patterning: The process of removing material via targeted EHD jet printing, often employing reactive inks to etch existing thin films.

References

1. Electrohydrodynamic Jet Printing: Introductory Concepts and Considerations. Small Science (2021).
2. Mechanisms, influencing factors, and applications of electrohydrodynamic jet printing. Nanotechnology Reviews (2021).
3. Efficient electrospray deposition of surfaces smaller than the spray plume. Nature Communications (2023).
4. A Very Stable High Throughput Taylor Cone-jet in Electrohydrodynamics. Scientific Reports (2016).
5. Patterning of High-Viscosity Silver Paste by an Electrohydrodynamic-Jet Printer for Use in TFT Applications. Scientific Reports (2019).
6. Subtractive Patterning of Nanoscale Thin Films Using Acid‐Based Electrohydrodynamic‐Jet Printing. Small Methods (2023).
7. Machine learning electrospray plume dynamics. Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence (2024).
8. Electrospray printing: Unravelling the history of a support free three-dimensional additive manufacturing technology. Materials Today (2023).