Rabies Virus Epidemiology and Control Strategies

Rabies is a globally distributed zoonotic disease caused by the rabies virus (RABV), a member of the genus Lyssavirus. The virus circulates primarily in domestic dog populations in low- and middle-income regions, where the majority of the estimated 59 000 annual human fatalities occur. Transmission follows the bite or scratch of an infected host, with wildlife reservoirs such as bats, foxes and raccoons sustaining sylvatic cycles. Molecular epidemiology has revealed two major clades—dog-related and bat-related RABV—with distinct evolutionary dynamics that underpin host shifts and regional emergence. Control strategies centre on two complementary pillars: interruption of transmission through mass dog vaccination to achieve and maintain the 70 per cent herd-immunity threshold, and prompt post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) in humans. In wildlife, oral rabies vaccination (ORV) campaigns have successfully eliminated variants from fox and raccoon populations in Europe and North America. Recent advances in vaccine technology, improvements in surveillance and modelling of transmission dynamics have strengthened prospects for the global elimination of dog-mediated rabies by 2030. Challenges remain in ensuring equitable access to PEP, sustaining high vaccination coverage in regions of rapid dog population turnover and adapting control to diverse ecological contexts.

Research from Nature Portfolio

Recent studies have demonstrated the promise of unmodified mRNA vaccine platforms for rabies prevention. In non-human primate models, a lipid nanoparticle-formulated mRNA vaccine encoding RABV glycoprotein induced higher neutralizing antibody titres and broader cross-neutralization of lyssaviruses compared with a licensed inactivated vaccine. The enhanced induction of RABV-specific plasmablasts, plasma cells and T-cell responses suggests that mRNA formulations may enable both superior immediate protection and sustained immunological memory. These findings open avenues for next-generation rabies vaccines capable of extending protective coverage to related lyssavirus species and improving global vaccine supply through scalable manufacturing.

Rabies Virus Epidemiology and Control Strategies publication trend

The graph below shows the total number of articles in rabies virus epidemiology and control strategies across all publications each year (not limited to Nature Index journals).

Technical terms

Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP): Administration of rabies vaccine and, when indicated, rabies immunoglobulin following a suspected exposure to prevent clinical disease.

Basic reproductive number (R₀): The average number of secondary infections generated by one infectious individual in a completely susceptible population; R₀ < 1 indicates declining transmission.

Lipid nanoparticle mRNA vaccine: A vaccine platform using lipid-encapsulated messenger RNA encoding viral antigens to elicit both humoral and cellular immune responses.

Phylogenomics: The study of evolutionary relationships and dynamics using whole-genome sequence data to infer patterns of divergence, selection and host adaptation.

References

1. Rabies – epidemiology, pathogenesis, public health concerns and advances in diagnosis and control: a comprehensive review. Veterinary Quarterly (2017).
2. Unmodified rabies mRNA vaccine elicits high cross-neutralizing antibody titers and diverse B cell memory responses. Nature Communications (2023).
3. Large-Scale Phylogenomic Analysis Reveals the Complex Evolutionary History of Rabies Virus in Multiple Carnivore Hosts. PLOS Pathogens (2016).
4. Transmission Dynamics and Prospects for the Elimination of Canine Rabies. PLOS Biology (2009).
5. Estimating the Global Burden of Endemic Canine Rabies. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases (2015).
6. The elimination of fox rabies from Europe: determinants of success and lessons for the future. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences (2013).
7. Oral Rabies Vaccination in North America: Opportunities, Complexities, and Challenges. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases (2009).
8. Elimination of Dog-Mediated Human Rabies Deaths by 2030: Needs Assessment and Alternatives for Progress Based on Dog Vaccination. Frontiers in Veterinary Science (2017).