Raman Spectroscopy Applications in Graphene Systems

Raman spectroscopy has become an indispensable tool for probing the structural and electronic properties of graphene. By analysing the characteristic vibrational modes—principally the D, G and 2D bands—researchers can quantify defects, assess the number of layers, measure strain distributions and evaluate doping levels with high spatial resolution. The sensitivity of Raman features to lattice distortions and electronic band structure arises from a double-resonance mechanism unique to sp² carbon networks, enabling non-destructive mapping of inhomogeneities down to sub-micrometre scales. Applications span quality control in large-area synthesis, investigation of defect-engineered materials for catalysis and energy storage, monitoring of mechanical deformation in flexible devices and assessment of charge-transfer interactions in sensor platforms. Advances in multiwavelength excitation and spatially resolved imaging have further extended capabilities to disentangle competing contributions from strain, doping and edge effects, thereby providing a comprehensive picture of graphene’s performance in both fundamental studies and practical applications.

Research from Nature Portfolio

Recent studies have elucidated the role of substrate interactions and domain structure on defect formation and strain distribution in graphene. One investigation combined heavy-ion irradiation experiments with atomistic simulations to reveal that substrate sputtering, rather than direct ion collisions, dominates defect creation in supported graphene, offering a pathway to tailor defect densities via substrate selection. Another work employed spatially resolved Raman mapping to correlate domain boundaries, defect densities and local strain fluctuations with charge-carrier mobility. High-resolution images of G and D peak intensities demonstrated that larger grains exhibit increased tensile strain and defect accumulation, which in turn degrade electrical transport. These findings underscore the importance of combining Raman imaging with complementary modelling to optimise graphene quality for electronic applications.

Raman Spectroscopy Applications in Graphene Systems publication trend

The graph below shows the total number of articles in raman spectroscopy applications in graphene systems across all publications each year (not limited to Nature Index journals).

Technical terms

Raman spectroscopy: A vibrational spectroscopic technique probing inelastic scattering of light by phonons in a material.

G peak: The primary Raman band near 1580 cm⁻¹ arising from in-plane C–C bond stretching in sp² networks.

D peak: A defect-activated band around 1350 cm⁻¹ that reflects the presence of vacancies, edges or disorder.

2D peak: An overtone of the D peak near 2700 cm⁻¹, sensitive to electronic band structure and layer number.

Double‐resonance mechanism: A process coupling electronic transitions and phonon scattering that governs defect-related Raman features in graphene.

Strain: Deformation of the graphene lattice, altering phonon energies and shifting Raman bands.

Doping: Introduction of electrons or holes into graphene, modulating the electronic environment and Raman line shapes.

References

1. Machine Learning Attacks‐Resistant Security by Mixed‐Assembled Layers‐Inserted Graphene Physically Unclonable Function. Advanced Science (2023).
2. Operability timescale of defect-engineered graphene. Surfaces and Interfaces (2023).
3. Mechanism of the Defect Formation in Supported Graphene by Energetic Heavy Ion Irradiation: the Substrate Effect. Scientific Reports (2015).
4. Spatially resolved Raman spectroscopy of defects, strains, and strain fluctuations in domain structures of monolayer graphene. Scientific Reports (2017).
5. Evaluating arbitrary strain configurations and doping in graphene with Raman spectroscopy. 2D Materials (2017).
6. A Guide to and Review of the Use of Multiwavelength Raman Spectroscopy for Characterizing Defective Aromatic Carbon Solids: from Graphene to Amorphous Carbons. Coatings (2017).